J Aging Age Relat Dis 1(1): 1002 (2017)
Submitted: 24 April 2017; Accepted: 03 July 2017; Published: 04 August 2017
Original Research Article
Age-related Changes of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na Contents in Intact Thyroid of Males Investigated by Neutron Activation Analysis
Vladimir Zaichick1*, Sofia Zaichick2
1Radionuclide Diagnostics Department, Medical Radiological Research Centre,
Obninsk, Russia
2Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, USA
*Corresponding author: Vladimir Zaichick, Korolyev St. 4, MRRC, Obninsk
249036, Kaluga region, Russia
Tel: +7-484-396-0289; Fax: +7-495-956-1440 Email: vezai@obninsk.com
A prevalence of thyroid dysfunction is higher in the elderly as compared to the younger population. An excess or deficiency of chemical element contents in thyroid may play important role in goitro- and carcinogenesis of gland. The variation with age of the mass fraction of eight chemical elements (Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na) in intact (normal) thyroid of 72 males (mean age 37.8 years, range 2-80 years) was investigated by instrumental neutron activation analysis with high resolution spectrometry of short-lived radionuclides. Mean values and standard error of mean for mass fractions (mg/kg, on dry-mass basis) of the chemical elements studied were: Br 13.7±1.0, Ca 1703±131, Cl 3449±219, I 1786±940, K 6289±329, Mg 306±19, Mn 1.31±0.07, and Na 6820±214. This work revealed that there is a statistically significant increase in Ca and I mass fraction, as well as a decrease in K and Mn mass fraction in the normal thyroid of male during a lifespan. Moreover, a disturbance of intrathyroidal chemical element relationships with increasing age was found. Therefore, a goitrogenic and carcinogenic effect of inadequate Ca, I, K, and Mn level in the thyroid of old males and a harmful impact of disturbance in intrathyroidal chemical element relationships with increasing age may be assumed.
Keywords: Age-related changes; Neutron activation analysis; Chemical elements; Thyroid
Abbreviations: INAA-SLR: Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis with high resolution Spectrometry of Short-lived Radionuclides; CRM/SRM: Certified/Standard Reference Materials; IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
The endocrine organs, including the thyroid gland, undergo
important functional changes during aging and a prevalence of
thyroid dysfunction is higher in the elderly as compared to the
younger population [ 1, 2]. Advancing age is known to influence
the formation of adenomatous goiter and thyroid cancer [ 3]. The
prevalence of thyroid nodules is increased in the elderly, reaching
a frequency of nearly 50% by the age of 65 [ 4]. Both prevalence
and aggressiveness of thyroid cancer increase with age [ 2].
Women are affected by thyroid nodule and cancer two to five
times more often than men, but in age over 65 years a prevalence
of thyroid cancer may be higher in men [ 2-4, 5].
Aging is characterized by progressive impairment of body
functions caused by the accumulation of molecular damage in
DNA, proteins and lipids, is also characterized by an increase in
intracellular oxidative stress due to the progressive decrease of
the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging [ 6, 7].
Oxidative damage to cellular macromolecules which induce
age-related diseases, including cancer, can also arise through
overproduction of ROS and faulty antioxidant and/or DNA repair mechanisms [ 8]. Overproduction of ROS is associated with
stress, inflammation, radiation, and some other factors, including
overload of certain chemical elements, in both blood and certain
tissues, or deficiency of other chemical elements with antioxidant
properties [ 9-15]. The imbalance in the composition of chemical
elements in cells, tissues and organs may cause different types
of pathology. The importance of appropriate levels of many
chemical elements is indisputable, due to their beneficial roles
when present in specific concentration ranges, while on the other
hand they can cause toxic effects with excessively high or low
concentrations [ 12].
In our previous studies [ 16-24] the high mass fraction of
iodine and some other chemical element were observed in
intact human thyroid gland when compared with their levels in
non-thyroid soft tissues of the human body. However, the agedependence
of chemical element mass fraction in thyroid of adult
and, particularly, elderly males is still need to be evaluated. One
valuable way to elucidate the situation is to compare the mass
fractions of chemical elements in young adult (the control group)
with those in older adult and geriatric thyroid. The findings of the
excess or deficiency of chemical element contents in thyroid and the perturbations of their relative proportions in glands of adult
and elderly males, may indicate their roles in a higher prevalence
of thyroid dysfunction in the elderly population.
The reliable data on chemical element mass fractions in
normal geriatric thyroid is apparently extremely limited. There
are multiple studies reporting chemical element content in
human thyroid, using chemical techniques and instrumental
methods [ 25-36]. However, majority of the analytical methods
currently used and validated for the determination of major and
trace elements in thyroid and other human organs are based on
techniques requiring sample digestion. The most frequently used
digestion procedures are the traditional dry ashing and highpressure
wet digestion that cause destruction of organic matter
of the sample. Sample digestion is a critical step in elemental
analysis and due to the risk of contamination and analytes loss, a
digestion step contributes to the systematic uncontrolled analysis
errors [ 37-39]. Moreover, only a few of the previous studies
employed quality control using certified/standard reference
materials (CRM/SRM) for determination of the chemical element
mass fractions. Therefore, sample-nondestructive technique like
instrumental neutron activation analysis with high resolution
spectrometry of short-lived radionuclides (INAA-SLR) combined
with a quality assurance using CRM/SRM is good alternatives
for multielement determination in the samples of thyroid
parenchyma.
There were three aims in this study. The primary purpose of
the study was to determine reliable values for the bromine (Br),
calcium (Ca), chlorine (Cl), iodine (I), potassium (K), magnesium
(Mg), manganese (Mn), and sodium (Na) mass fractions in the
normal (intact) thyroid of subjects ranging from children to
elderly males using INAA-SLR. The second aim was to compare
the Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass fractions in thyroid
gland of age group 2 (adults and elderly persons aged 36 to 80
years), with those of group 1 (from 2 to 35 years) and to find the
correlations between age and chemical element contents, and the
final aim was to find the inter-correlations of chemical elements
in normal thyroid of males and their changes with age.
All studies were approved by the Ethical Committee of the
Medical Radiological Research Center.
Subjects and Sample Preparation
Samples of the human thyroid were obtained from randomly
selected autopsy specimens of 72 males (European-Caucasian)
aged 2 to 80 years. All the deceased were citizens of Obninsk
and had undergone routine autopsy at the Forensic Medicine
Department of City Hospital, Obninsk. Subjects were divided into
two age groups, group 1 with 2-35 years (22.3±1.4 years, M±SEM,
n=36) and group 2 with 36–80 years (53.3±2.5 years, M±SEM,
n=36). These groups were selected to reflect the condition of
thyroid tissue in the children, teenagers, young adults and first
period of adult life (group 1) and in the second period of adult life
as well as in old age (group 2). The available clinical data were
reviewed for each subject. None of the subjects had a history of an intersex condition, endocrine disorder, or other chronic disease
that could affect the normal development of the thyroid. None of
the subjects were receiving medications or used any supplements
known to affect thyroid chemical element contents. The typical
causes of sudden death of most of these subjects included trauma
or suicide and also acute illness (cardiac insufficiency, stroke,
embolism of pulmonary artery, alcohol poisoning). All right lobes
of thyroid glands were divided into two portions using a titanium
scalpel [ 40]. One tissue portion was reviewed by an anatomical
pathologist while the other was used for the chemical element
content determination. A histological examination was used to
control the age norm conformity as well as the unavailability of
microadenomatosis and latent cancer.
After the samples intended for chemical element analysis
were weighed, they were transferred to -20°C and stored until the
day of transportation in the Medical Radiological Research Center,
Obninsk, where all samples were freeze-dried and homogenized
[ 41]. The pounded sample weighing about 100 mg was used
for chemical element measurement by INAA-SLR. The samples
for INAA-SLR were sealed separately in thin polyethylene films
washed beforehand with acetone and rectified alcohol. The
sealed samples were placed in labeled polyethylene ampoules.
Preparation of Standards
To determine contents of the elements by comparison with
a known standard, biological synthetic standards (BSS) were
prepared from phenol-formaldehyde resins [ 42]. In addition to
BSS, aliquots of commercially available pure compounds were
also used as standards. Ten certified reference material (CRM)
IAEA H-4 (animal muscle) sub-samples weighing about 100 mg
were treated and analyzed in the same conditions that thyroid
samples to estimate the precision and accuracy of results.
Irradiation
The content of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na were determined
by INAA-SLR using a horizontal channel equipped with the
pneumatic rabbit system of the WWR-c research nuclear
reactor. The neutron flux in the channel was 1.7 × 1013n cm−2
s−1. Ampoules with thyroid tissue samples, SSB, intralaboratorymade
standards, and certified reference material were put into
polyethylene rabbits and then irradiated separately for 180 s.
Copper foils were used to assess neutron flux.
The measurement of each sample was made twice, 1 and
120 min after irradiation. The duration of the first and second
measurements was 10 and 20 min, respectively. Spectrometric
measurements were performed using a coaxial 98-cm3 Ge (Li)
detector and a spectrometric unit (NUC 8100), including a PCcoupled
multichannel analyzer. Resolution of the spectrometric
unit was 2.9-keV at the 60Co 1,332-keV line. Details of used nuclear
reactions, radionuclides, and gamma-energies were reported in
our earlier publications concerning the INAA chemical element
contents in human scalp hair [ 17, 43].
Statistical Analysis
A dedicated computer program for INAA mode optimization
was used [ 44]. All thyroid samples were prepared in duplicate,
and mean values of chemical element contents were used in
final calculation. Using Microsoft Office Excel, a summary of
the statistics, including, arithmetic mean, standard deviation,
standard error of mean, minimum and maximum values, median,
percentiles with 0.025 and 0.975 levels was calculated for
chemical element contents. The difference in the results between
two age groups was evaluated by the parametric Student’s
t-test and non-parametric Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test.
For the construction of “age - chemical element mass fraction”
diagrams (including lines of trend with age) and the estimation
of the Pearson correlation coefficient between age and chemical
element mass fraction as well as between different chemical
elements the Microsoft Office Excel programs were also used. To
identify the trend of the age dependency of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg,
Mn, and Na contents, we applied approximation methods using
exponential, linear, polynomial, logarithmic and power function.
The maximum of corresponding values of R2 parameter, reflecting
the accuracy of approximation, was used for the selection of
function.
Table 1 indicates our data for eight chemical elements in ten
sub- samples of CRM IAEA H-4 (animal muscle) and the certified
values of this material.
Table 2 represents certain statistical parameters (arithmetic
mean, standard deviation, standard error of mean, minimal and
maximal values, median, percentiles with 0.025 and 0.975 levels)
of the Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass fractions in intact
(normal) thyroid of males.
The comparison of our results with published data for the Br,
Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na contents in the human thyroid is shown
in Table 3.
To estimate the effect of age on the chemical element
contents we examined two age groups, described above ( Table 4). In addition, the Pearson correlation coefficient between age and
trace element mass fraction was calculated ( Table 5). Figure 1
shows the individual data sets for the Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and
Na mass fraction in all samples of thyroid, and also lines of trend
with age. Since the age dependency of these element contents
was best described by a polynomial function, this approximation
was reflected in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Data sets of individual Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass fraction values in intact thyroid of males and their trend lines
Figure 1: Data sets of individual Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass fraction values in intact thyroid of males and their trend lines
×
The data of inter-correlation calculations (values of r -
coefficient of correlation) including all chemical elements
identified by us are presented in Table 6.
A good agreement of the Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na
contents analyzed by INAA-SLR with the certified data of CRM
IAEA H-4 ( Table 1) demonstrates an acceptable accuracy of the
results obtained in the study of chemical elements of the thyroid
presented in Tables 2-5.
The obtained means for Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass
fraction, as shown in Table 3, agree well with the medians of
mean values reported by other researches for the human thyroid,
including samples received from persons who died from different
non-thyroid diseases [ 25-36]. A number of values for chemical
element mass fractions were not expressed on a dry mass basis
by the authors of the cited references. However, we calculated
these values using published data for water (75%) [ 45] and ash
(4.16% on dry mass basis) [ 46] contents in thyroid of adults.
A statistically significant age-related decrease in K and Mn
mass fraction was observed in thyroid of males ( Table 4) when
two age groups were compared. In second group of males with
mean age 53.3 years the mean K and Mn mass fraction in thyroids
were 19% and 24%, respectively, lower than in thyroids of the
first age group (mean age 22.3 years). A statistically significant
decrease in K and Mn mass fraction with age was confirmed by
the negative Pearson’s coefficient of correlation between age and
mass fractions of these elements ( Table 5). There were no found
the statistically significant differences between the Br, Ca, Cl, I, Mg,
and Na mass fractions within two different age-groups. However
a statistically significant increase in Ca, and I mass fraction with
increasing of age was shown by the positive Pearson’s coefficient
of correlation between age and mass fractions of these elements
( Table 5, Figure 1). As per author’s current information, no
published data referring to age-related changes of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K,
Mg, Mn, and Na mass fractions in human thyroid is available.
A significant direct correlation, for example, between the Mn
and Br, Mn and Ca, Mn and Mg, Ca and I mass fractions as well as an
inverse correlation between I and Mg, I and Na mass fractions was
seen in male thyroid of the first age group ( Table 6). In age group
2 many correlations between chemical elements in thyroid found
in the age group 1 are no longer evident ( Table 6). For example,
all correlations between Mn and other chemical elements as well
as between I and other chemical elements, existed in the age from
2 to 35 years, disappeared but new inverse correlation Br-Cl was
arisen. Thus, if we accept the levels and relationships of chemical
element mass fraction in thyroid glands of males in the age range
2 to 35 years as a norm, we must conclude that after age 35 years
the level of K and Mn, as well as relationships of chemical elements
in thyroid significantly changed. If some positive correlations
between the elements in the group 1 were predictable (e.g., Na-
Cl), the interpretation of other observed relationships and their
perturbation with age requires further study for a complete
understanding. No published data on inter-correlations of Br, Ca,
Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass fractions in human thyroid and agerelated
changes of these inter-correlations was found.
An age-related increase and excess in Ca mass fractions in
thyroid tissue may contribute to harmful effects on the gland.
There are good reasons for such speculations since many reviews
and numerous papers raise the concern about role of Ca in the
prostate, breast, lung and other organ malignant transformation
[ 47-72]. Calcium ions Ca2+ are central to both cell proliferation
and cell death [ 50]. Changes in cytosolic Ca2+ trigger events critical
for tumorigenesis, such as cellular motility, proliferation and
apoptosis [ 52, 53]. An increased growth rate of cells is correlated
with an increase in the intracellular calcium pool content [ 47, 48].
Moreover, increases in cytosolic free Ca2+ represent a ubiquitous
signaling mechanism that controls a variety of cellular processes,
including not only proliferation, but also cell metabolism and gene
transcription [ 51]. Indeed, an increased level of Ca content in the
thyroid tissue of old males reflects an increase in the intracellular
calcium pool. Thus, an increase of Ca content in tissue and organs
with age is a key feature in etiology of many benign and malignant
tumors, including thyroid goiter and cancer.
It is well known that excess in I mass fractions in thyroid tissue may contribute to harmful effects on the gland [ 19, 21, 73-76]. Because K+ is mainly an intracellular electrolyte, a decreased
level of K content in the thyroid tissue of old males might indicate
an age-related decrease of ratio “thyroid cell mass – follicular
colloid mass”. From the other hand, mass fraction of Na does not
change during a lifespan ( Table 4, Figure 1). From this it follows
that an intracellular Na+:K+ ratio in thyroid of old males may be
higher normal level. In turn, increasing intracellular Na+:K+ ratio
is associated with a depolarization of the cell membrane [ 77].
The sustained depolarization of the cell membrane results in an
increased rate of cell division and in that way with an increased
risk of goiter, benign and malignant tumor of thyroid.
It was reported that intracellular Mn content was positively
correlated with manganese-containing superoxide dismutase
(Mn-SOD), suggesting that the intracellular Mn level is associated
with Mn-SOD activity [ 78]. Thus, a decrease of Mn content
in thyroid parenchyma with age indicates the deficiency of
antioxidant enzymes in the gland of old males.
All the samples were obtained from deceased citizens of
Obninsk. Obninsk is the small nonindustrial city not far from
Moscow in unpolluted area. None of the subjects include in this
study had suffered from any systematic or chronic disorders
before their sudden death. The normal state of thyroid gland
was confirmed by morphological examination. Thus, our data on
Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na mass fractions in intact thyroid
may indicate normal values for males of urban population of the
Russian Central European region.
The instrumental neutron activation analysis with high
resolution spectrometry of short-lived radionuclides is a useful
analytical tool for the non-destructive determination of chemical
element content in the thyroid tissue samples. This method
allows determine the mean of content for Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn,
and Na (8 chemical elements).
Our data elucidate that there is a statistically significant
increase in Ca and I mass fraction, as well as a decrease in K
and Mn mass fraction in the normal thyroid of male during a
lifespan. Moreover, a disturbance of intrathyroidal chemical
element relationships with increasing age was found. Therefore,
a goitrogenic and carcinogenic effect of inadequate Ca, I, K, and
Mn level in the thyroid of old males and a harmful impact of
disturbance in intrathyroidal chemical element relationships
with increasing age may be assumed.
We are grateful to Dr. Yu Choporov, Head of the Forensic
Medicine Department of City Hospital, Obninsk, for supplying
thyroid samples. We are also grateful to three anonymous
reviewers for their comments and peer-review.
There is no any financial interest or any conflict of interest.
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Int J Oral Sci. 2013; 5(2): 71-74.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. INAA application in the assessment of chemical
element mass fractions in adult and geriatric prostate glands. Appl
Radiat Isot. 2014; 90: 62-73.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Determination of trace elements in adults and
geriatric prostate combining neutron activation with inductively
coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Open Journal of Biochemistry,
2014; 1(2): 16-33.
- Pavithra V, Sathisha TG, Kasturi K, Mallika DS, Amos SJ, Ragunatha S.
Serum levels of metal ions in female patients with breast cancer. J Clin
Diagn Res. 2015; 9(1): BC25-BC27.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S, Davydov G. Differences between chemical element
contents in hyperplastic and nonhyperplastic prostate glands
investigated by neutron activation analysis. Biol Trace Elem Res.
2015; 164: 25-35.
- Zaichick S, Zaichick V. Prostatic tissue level of some androgen dependent
and independent trace elements in patients with benign prostatic
hyperplasia. Androl Gynecol: Curr Res. 2015; 3: 3.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. The Bromine, Calcium, Potassium, Magnesium,
Manganese, and Sodium Contents in Adenocarcinoma of Human
Prostate Gland. J Hematology and Oncology Research. 2016; 2(2):
1-12.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Variations in concentration and distribution
of several androgen-dependent and -independent trace elements in
nonhyperplastic prostate gland tissue throughout adulthood. J Androl
Gynaecol. 2016; 4(1): 1-10.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Prostatic tissue levels of 43 trace elements in
patients with prostate adenocarcinoma. Cancer and Clinical Oncology.
2016; 5(1): 79-94.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Levels of 43 trace elements in hyperplastic
prostate tissues. British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research.
2016; 15(2): 1-12.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Prostatic tissue level of some major and trace
elements in patients with BPH. JJ Nephro Urol. 2016; 3(1): 025.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Age-related changes in concentration and histological
distribution of Br, Ca, Cl, K, Mg, Mn, and Na in nonhyperplastic
prostate of adults. European Journal of Biology and Medical
Science Research. 2016; 4(2): 31-48.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. Age-related changes in concentration and histological
distribution of 18 chemical elements in nonhyperplastic
prostate of adults. World Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research.
2016; 2(4): 5-18.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S. The Comparison between the contents and
interrelationships of 17 chemical elements in normal and cancerous
prostate gland. Journal of Prostate Cancer. 2016; 1(1): 105.
- Zaichick V, Zaichick S, Rossmann M. Intracellular calcium excess as
one of the main factors in the etiology of prostate cancer. AIMS Molecular
Science. 2016; 3(4): 635-647.
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About the Corresponding Author:
Dr. Vladimir Zaichick
Summary of backgroung:
Vladimir Zaichick has completed his PhD at the age of 29 years from
Institute of Biophysics, Moscow, and his DSc degree and Professor rank
from Medical Radiological Research Center, Obninsk, Russia. He is a
member of the Scientific Council on Analytical Chemistry of the Russian
Academy of Sciences. a fellow of the British Royal Society of Chemistry
and Chartered Chemist (since 1996), and a member of some other
Scientific Societies He has published more than 300 papers in reputed
journals and 19 patents. He is serving as an editorial board member of
few scientific journals.
Current position - professor, principal investigator.
Current research focus:
- Nuclear and relative analytical methods for in vitro and in vivo
investigation of chemical element contents in human tissue, organs
and fluids suitable for using in medical studies.
- Age- and gender-dependence of chemical element contents in
tissues and fluids of human body.
- Role of chemical element contents in tissues and fluids of human
body in normal and pathophysiology, in ageing and in an aetiology
and pathogenesis of age-related diseases, including carcinogenesis.
- Chemical element contents in human tissue, organs and fluids as
markers of norm and diseases, including cancer.
- Investigation of chemical element contents in food and diets.
Permanent e-mail address: vezai@obninsk.com
Citation:Zaichick V, Zaichick S (2017) Age-related changes of Br, Ca, Cl, I, K, Mg, Mn, and Na contents in intact thyroid of males investigated by neutron activation
analysis. J Aging Age Relat Dis 1(1): 1002 (2017)
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