In many animals, forced copulation is a severe manifestation of sexual conflict. The most widely accepted explanation for forced copulations in birds is that they enhance the probability of fertilisation success for males. However, at least seven other explanations for this phenomenon have been proposed in recent years. Increased fertilisation success appears to apply primarily to species possessing a penis. In other birds, in which the probability of fertilisation is low, the principal function of forced extra-pair copulation (FEPC) seems to be the creation of a landscape of fear, which may reduce competition for local resources. Additionally, FEPC may fulfill other species-specific roles unrelated to these general functions.