Background and Purpose: Various factors are attributed to life satisfaction of the Chinese elderly. Adult children’s dependence on their parents has been noted to increase the parents’ life satisfaction. This study compares how adult children’s support and dependence each contributes to life satisfaction for the elderly in China.

Methods: Data were drawn from the Chinese Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (CLASS 2014). We focused on individuals aged 60 years and over (N = 8,987). Multiple linear regression models were used for the data analyses.

Results: Receiving adult children’s support, such as through financial assistance and emotional care, had a significant effect on the elderly’s life satisfaction. However, there are differences in the influence of the frequency of emotional care on life satisfaction of the elderly. There was also a significant relationship between adult children’s financial dependence on the elderly and the elderly’s life satisfaction. Elderly persons who received their adult children’s financial and physical support were more satisfied with life than their counterparts who supported dependent adult children. The elderly with better retirement incomes were more likely to support their children.

Conclusions: Although the traditional “feedback model” still prevails in Chinese society, it has undergone some changes. For the Chinese elderly, life satisfaction can be increased by both receiving and giving support to their adult children, and retirement income plays an important role.

• Life satisfaction

• The elderly

• Children’s dependence

• Children’s support

• China

Zhang J, Zhang L,Yin Y (2024). Adult Children’s Dependence or Support: Which Increases Life Satisfaction for the Chinese Elderly? Ann Psychiatry Ment Health 12(1): 1190.

In China as well as throughout the world, there is an increasing trend of population aging [1]. Moreover, industrialization and urbanization have led to changes in the flows of intergenerational support. As a result of these changes, the quality of life and the life satisfaction of the elderly have become important issues to examine. The traditional Chinese moral and ethical concepts with strong Confucian ideals of filial obligation assume that parents are mainly taken care of by their children when they grow old [2]. Support from adult children, in particular, is a primary form of informal support provided to elderly parents around the world [3].

However, little empirical attention has been paid to how adult children’s dependence influences the elderly’s life satisfaction. This has resulted in an overlooking of potential differences in the relationship between intergenerational support and life satisfaction for the elderly, across different types of intergenerational support. Against this background, this study poses two research questions: 1) What are the main types of intergenerational support in Chinese families? and 2) When adult children’s dependence and support are compared, which increases their elderly parents’ life satisfaction more?

Although adult children’s support is an important source of life satisfaction for the elderly [4,5], it can have both positive and negative effects on parents’ physical and mental health [6]. On the one hand, adult children’s support was negatively related to their elderly parents’ life satisfaction because accepting supportive care could prompt the elderly to feel a sense of helplessness and dependence [7]. Shenk [8], also found that older women were concerned about being a burden to their children. On the other hand, children’s support had a significant positive correlation with the elderly’s life satisfaction in Chen’s [9] study. Elderly persons who received adult children’s financial and physical support were more satisfied with life. Indeed, financial support was the primary factor of life satisfaction for the elderly, as allowed them to have pension security and meet their life needs [9].

Peng [10], examined three types of children’s support.

Namely, daily living, financial, and emotional care were examined in four patterns: the over-benefited, under-benefited, reciprocal, and no flow of exchange. Studies showed that the elderly were less satisfied with their life when they had no flow of exchange in daily living support, and more satisfied when they were under- benefited in financial support and over-benefited or reciprocal in emotional support. Stronger emotional bonds with children improved parents’ psychological well-being. In rural China, elderly persons residing in multigenerational households and living with both adult children and grandchildren had a buffer against the negative impacts of stress on mental and physical health [11]. There were differences between childless and non- childless individuals in the provision of financial, practical, and emotional transfers to their elderly parents. That is, childless individuals were more prone to provide upward support than were individuals with children [12]. In social capital theories, relying on intergenerational solidarity as one ages and experiences declining health means that a person receives more support from his or her adult children. Support was stronger among daughters compared to sons but only toward mothers [13].

Fei [14], first proposed that China’s intergenerational support model is different from the “relay model” in the West in that China instead uses a “feedback model.” In this feedback model, the relationship between younger and older generations is a balance of care and being cared for. When children grow up, they should take care of their parents by providing not only financial support, but also daily care and spiritual or emotional support. This is reflected in cultural characteristics of parents raising their children to help them as they age later on. Therefore, we hypothesize that receiving adult children’s support in finances, housework, and emotional care has a positive effect on the elderly’s life satisfaction (Hypothesis 1).

In the process of social change, when children are making the transition to adulthood, they face various life pressures such as the financial pressure of marriage and housing or the financial and time pressures of childcare. As an increasing number of Chinese parents provide intergenerational support to their adult children, and adult children may tend to cling to a dependent role, the traditional feedback model has changed [15]. However, the influence of adult children’s dependence on their elderly parents’ life satisfaction is complex. On the one hand, according to intergenerational solidarity theory, parents who are “givers” and not “receivers” are less satisfied. This is contrary to the results of Western studies, namely, that playing the giver role increased the life satisfaction of older people [16]. For example, adult children’s dependence on housework support from their elderly parents could contribute to parents’ deterioration of health and increase in life burden [17]. On the other hand, the elderly may realize that traditional intergenerational support is no longer sufficient for intergenerational responsibility, and accordingly, they provide financial support to their adult children to maintain family authority and values [18].

According to identity theory, children’s dependence on

the elderly could enhance the elderly’s sense of identity and self-worth, which would have a positive and significant effect on their life satisfaction, especially concerning their role of providing financial support [19]. Yang [20], noted that in the theory of responsibility ethics, the elderly would pay more attention to living independently and with self-sufficiency, not asking for support from their children, and would even help their adult children with instrumental support to reduce the family burden [6]. Adult children’s dependence on the elderly is an obvious intergenerational relationship of contradictory intentions, in which intergenerational unity and conflict coexist. Then, since parents’ support for their children could maximize the family interest, it is the choice of intergenerational emotion rationalization [21].

According to the Power and Bargaining Model, the resources and power status of elderly individuals decline as they age, and this loss of control causes the direction of the flow of wealth to be reversed from its former upward direction toward mature adults to maintain authority in the family. In the Mutual Aid Model, family members participate in involuntary exchange and help based on special relationships. On the contrary, in the Altruism/ Corporate Group Model, family members can form a cooperative group to realize the unity of family interests. These three theories rationalize adult children’s dependence on their parents [22].

The social exchange theory by American sociologist Blau [23], explains that there is a wide exchange relationship between people that involves money, agreement, respect, and power. The payment and return between family members follows the principle of market exchange. Payment is a form of investment, and family members are then eager to obtain an equal return. The balance of exchange between the two sides is the basic principle in maintaining the family’s structure and even the whole social operation. However, people also have the characteristics of socialness and consciousness. Instead, of comparing only the objective and absolute values of rewards and costs in the exchange perspective, subjective perception as the foundation of calculation is a key part of the reference perspective. Elderly individuals who have enough retirement money and feel healthy physically and psychologically may perceive their adult children’s dependence on them as a sort of social importance [24]. Therefore, we hypothesize that adult children’s dependence on their elderly parents for financial and housework support has a positive effect on the elderly’s life satisfaction (Hypothesis 2).

Data Source

Data were drawn from the Chinese Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (CLASS 2014), which is part of a large-scale panel data collection project managed by Renmin University of China that covers 29 provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions across China. A multistage probability sampling method was used to select the sample, which covered 462 villages and neighborhood committees (excluding Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao,Hainan, and Xinjiang). Each village and neighborhood committee adopted drawing sampling to select households for the sample, and one elderly person from each household was approached. The respondents were Chinese citizens aged 60 or older. A total of 8,987 valid cases were collected, including 4,550 urban cases and 4,437 rural cases.

Measurements

Dependent Variable: The dependent variable was life satisfaction. It was a continuous variable. In response to the question “In general, are you satisfied with your current life?” the participants selected from among six answer options: (1) very good, (2) good, (3) general, (4) very bad, (5) bad, and (9) unanswerable. Their responses were recoded to 1 = very bad, 2 = bad, 3 = general, 4 = good, and 5 = very good. Responses of “unanswerable” were dropped. A higher score indicated better life satisfaction.

Independent Variables: There are two main factors to consider in measuring intergenerational support: adult children’s support given to their elderly parents (e.g., finances, housework, emotional care) and elderly parents’ support given to their adult children (e.g., finances, housework).

Adult children’s financial support was a binary variable assessed with the question “Has the child ever given you money, food, or gifts? If so, how much were they worth?” There were nine answer choices: 1 = none; 2 = 1–199 RMB; 3 = 200–499 RMB; 4= 500–999 RMB; 5 = 1,000–1,999 RMB; 6 = 2,000–3,999 RMB; 7 = 4,000–6,999 RMB; 8 = 7,000–11,999 RMB; and 9 = 12,000 RMB and above. Because we only analyzed the impact of adult children’s financial support on the elderly’s life satisfaction, not the degree of financial help, we recoded the option “none = 0” as a reference group; otherwise, it was coded as 1.

Then, adult children’s provision of housework support was a binary variable: No = 0 and Yes = 1. The question was “How often has your child helped you with housework in the past 12 months?” There were five answer choices: 1 = almost every day, 2 = at least once a week, 3 = at least once a month, 4 = several times a year, and 5 = hardly. Because we only considered the impact of adult children’s housework support on the elderly’s life satisfaction, not the degree of housework support, we recoded the option “hardly = 0” as a reference group; otherwise, it was coded as 1.

Adult children’s emotional care for their elderly parents was investigated using two questions: “How often have you met your child in the past 12 months?” and “How often have you called your child in the past 12 months?” The answer choices were as follows: 1 = almost every day, 2 = at least once a week, 3 = at least once a month, 4 = several times a year, and 5 = hardly. Responses were recoded to 0= hardly, 1 = several times a year, 2 = at least once a month, 3 = at least once a week, and 4 = almost every day. The option “0 = hardly” as a reference group.

Adult children’s financial dependence on elderly parents was a binary variable investigated with the question “In the past 12 months, have you ever given money, food, or gifts to your child and his/her family? If so, how much were they worth?” There were nine answer choices: 1 = none; 2 = 1–199 RMB; 3 = 200–499 RMB; 4 = 500–999 RMB; 5 = 1,000–1,999 RMB; 6 = 2,000–3,999 RMB; 7 = 4,000–6,999 RMB; 8 = 7,000–11,999 RMB; and 9 =12,000 RMB and above. Because we only considered the impact of adult children’s dependence on their parents’ life satisfaction, not the degree of financial help, we recoded the responses as “none = 0” as a reference group; otherwise, they were coded as 1.

Adult children’s dependence on their elderly parents for housework support was a binary variable: No = 0 and Yes = 1. We used the question “How often has your child helped you with housework in the past 12 months?” There were five answer choices: 1 = almost every day, 2 = at least once a week, 3 = at least once a month, 4 = several times a year, and 5 = hardly. Because we only considered the impact of adult children’s housework support on the elderly’s life satisfaction, not the degree of housework support, if the respondent hardly took part in housework, the answer was marked as 0; otherwise, it was coded as 1.

Control Variables: In the dimension of demographic characteristics, gender and age were the basic demographic variables. Gender was a binary variable: Male = 0 and Female= 1. Age was a continuous variable, and the study participants were the elderly aged 60 years and above. Hometown was a binary variable: Rural = 0 and City =1. Believing in a religion was a binary variable: No = 0 and Yes =1.

Health status was assessed as 1 = very good, 2 = good, 3 = general, 4 = bad, 5 = very bad, and 9 = unanswerable. The responses were recoded to 0 = very bad, 1 = bad, 2 = general, 3 = good, and 4 = very good, and we dropped the “unanswerable” responses. The option “0 = very bad” as a reference group.

Level of education was a continuous variable evaluated with the question “What is your highest level of education?” There were five answer choices: 1 = illiterate, 2 = literacy class or private school, 3 = primary school, 4 = junior high school, 5 = high school, and 6 = university and above. Because the frequency of literacy class or private school was relatively small, we merged this option with the primary school category. The responses were recoded to 0 = illiterate, 1 = primary school, 2 = junior high school, 3 = high school, and 4 = university and above, and we dropped the “unanswerable” responses. The option “0 = illiterate” as a reference group.

Having a spouse was a binary variable: No = 0 and Yes = 1. The group without a spouse included participants who had never been married, were divorced, or were widowed. The group with a spouse covered those who were currently married.

Social economic status was assessed by individual annual income using the question “What is your personal total income for the past 12 months?” To make the data normal distribution, the logarithm of income was included in the model to make the data distribute normally.

Statistical Methods

STATA 15.1 was employed for the data analyses. The bivariate analyses used the correlation coefficients, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test and a t-test. Multiple linear regression was used to assess the model for predicting life satisfaction (Table 1).

Table 1: Participant Characteristics and Results for All the Major Variables

Descriptive Statistical Analysis

The sample consisted of 4,440 men and 4,547 women whose ages ranged from 60 to 113 years with an average of 69.98 years. Among them, 4,437 participants lived in rural areas and 4,550 were in urban areas. A majority did not believe in a religion (88.16%). The highest level of education most participants had completed was at the level of illiteracy (29.05%), primary school (34.05%), or junior high (20.27%). One reason for this could be that the participants were aged 60 and above. Most of participants had average health (29.12%) or good health or above (43.32%). In total, 66.75% (N = 5,999) of the participants reported having a spouse. The participants’ annual incomes ranged from 60 to 960,000 RMB.

Elderly individuals who received financial help (79.06%) and housework support (57.57%) from their adult children accounted for a high proportion of the total. 2,858 (31.80%) participants were visited by their children almost every day; 1,866 (20.76%) participants were visited by their children at least once a week; 1,457 (16.21%) participants were visited by their children at least once a month; and 2,372 (26.39%) participants were visited by their children several times a year. Only 434 (4.83%) elderly individuals hardly saw their children. Meanwhile, lower percentages of participants reported that their adult children were dependent on them for financial help (32.73%) or housework support (26.58%).

Overall, 3,192 (35.52%) participants considered their lives to be very good, while 3,654 (40.66%) reported their lives were good, 1,635 (18.19%) said average, and 388 (4.32%) said their lives were bad. Only 118 (1.31%) participants thought their lives were very bad. As can be seen, the average score of life satisfaction for the whole sample was 4.05 (SD = 0.91). This indicated that a fairly large proportion of the elderly in China had high life satisfaction.

Bivariate Analyses

A t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test and Pearson correlation were used to examine the participants’ life satisfaction in relation to the independent variables. Life satisfaction was significantly associated with a number of characteristics (Table 2): age, hometown, educational level, health status, and the logarithm of personal annual income (p < 0.001).

Table 2: Adult Children’s Dependence, Children’s Support, and the Elderly’s Life Satisfaction: Bivariate Analyses (N = 8,987)

The older participants were, the more satisfied they were with life. Moreover, compared with the rural elderly, the urban elderly were more likely to be satisfied with life. Those who had a higher level of education or were healthier were also more satisfied. Similarly, the elderly with better health and incomes were more likely to be happy. Believing in a religion was significantly associated with life satisfaction (p < 0.05). Further, there were clear differences in life satisfaction when comparing adult children’s support and children’s dependence (p < 0.001). However, differences in the effects of gender, having a spouse, and adult children’s dependence on housework support were not statistically significant.

Regression Analysis

Multiple linear regressions were constructed to analyze the factors related to life satisfaction (Table 3).

Table 3: Multiple Regressions of the Elderly’s Life Satisfaction on Children’s Support and Dependence with Major Covariates Included (N = 8,987)

Model 1 only included the demographic control variables and showed that gender, age and the logarithm of personal annual income had significant effect on the elderly’s life satisfaction (β1 = 0.05, p < 0.001; β2 = 0.02, p < 0.001; β3 = 0.05, p < 0.001). Women were significantly more likely to have higher life satisfaction, as were those who were older, and had higher personal annual income. Further, hometown (β = − 0.06, p < 0.05), having a spouse (β = 0.06, p < 0.01) had significant effects on the elderly’s life satisfaction. Elderly persons who lived in rural areas were significantly more likely to have higher life satisfaction, as were those who had a spouse. Compared to individuals with illiterate education level, those who have junior middle school and high school have reported higher life satisfaction (β1 = 0.08, p < 0.05; β2 = 0.09, p < 0.05), those who have primary school and university and above have reported higher life satisfaction (β1 = 0.05, p = 0.07; β2 = 0.02, p = 0.58). Although the P values of them were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Comparing with the elderly with worse health, the positive coefficients (β1 = 0.12, p< 0.01; β2 = 0.35, p < 0.001; β3 = 0.60, p < 0.001; β4= 0.91, p < 0.001) showed that the elderly with better health have higher life satisfaction. All of P values were statistically significant. However, we did not find a significant impact of religious beliefs on life satisfaction. Comparing with having not religious beliefs, the positive coefficients (β = 0.05, p > 0.05) showed that the elderly with believing any religion have higher life satisfaction.

Model 2 added adult children’s financial support, housework support, frequency of visits, frequency of calling, and control variables. The analysis showed that the regression equation was, in general, significant and could explain 11% of the total variance (R2 = 0.11; F = 47.35, p < 0.001) (see Model 2). It indicated that gender, age and the logarithm of personal annual income had still significant effect on the elderly’s life satisfaction (p < 0.001). Further, hometown (β = − 0.07, p < 0.01), having a spouse (β = 0.05, p < 0.05) had also significant effects on the elderly’s life satisfaction. Compared to urban elderly, rural elderly have reported higher life satisfaction. Compared to individuals with illiterate education level, those who have junior middle school and high school have reported higher life satisfaction (β1 = 0.07, p < 0.05; β2 = 0.08, p < 0.05), but the differences in educational level have been weakened. Comparing with worse health, the positive coefficients (β1 = 0.15, p < 0.01; β2 = 0.34, p < 0.001; β3 = 0.59, p < 0.001; β4 = 0.89, p < 0.001) showed that the elderly with better health have higher life satisfaction. All of P values were statistically significant. Adult children’s financial support significantly predicted life satisfaction. Specifically, adult children’s financial support was linked to greater life satisfaction (β = 0.10, p < 0.001). Comparing with individuals who do not have kids’ support with housework, the positive coefficients (β = 0.02, p = 0.40) indicated those who have kids’ support with housework have reported higher life satisfaction, although the P values were not statistically significant (p > 0.05) in the model. Comparing with children’s visits hardly, the positive coefficients (β1 = 0.10, p < 0.05; β2 = 0.17, p < 0.01; β3 = 0.15, p < 0.01; β4 = 0.15, p < 0.01) indicated a greater frequency of visiting had a positive impact on elderly parents’ life satisfaction. Comparing with children’s calling hardly, the negative coefficients (β1 = −0.08, p = 0.07; β2 = −0.01, p = 0.76) showed that children’s calling several times a year and at least once a month has lower life satisfaction, although the P values were not statistically significant (p > 0.05), while the positive coefficients (β1 = 0.06, p < 0.05; β2 = 0.10, p < 0.01) showed that children’s calling several times a week and almost every day has higher life satisfaction.

Model 3 added adult children’s dependence on financial support from their elderly parents, dependence on housework support. The analysis showed that the regression equation was, in general, significant and could explain 10% of the total variance (R2 = 0.10; F = 67.45, p < 0.001) (see Model 3). Adult children’s dependence on financial support from their elderly parents significantly predicted the elderly parents’ life satisfaction (β= 0.08, p < 0.001). Specifically, elderly persons whose children depended on their financial support reported having greater life satisfaction. Comparing with individuals who do not have kids’ dependence with housework, the negative coefficients (β =−0.02, p = 0.33) indicated those who have kids’ dependence with housework have reported lower life satisfaction, although the P values were not statistically significant (p > 0.05) in the model.

Next, we compared the results of adult children’s support and children’s dependence. When compared to elderly persons whose adult children were financially dependent (β = 0.10, p < 0.001), the elderly who provided support to their adult children’s (β = 0.08, p < 0.001) had significantly higher life satisfaction. Although adult children’s housework support for the elderly and their dependence on housework support from the elderly had no significant impact on the elderly’s life satisfaction, we also found that when compared with elderly individuals whose children depended on them for housework support (β = −0.02), the elderly who received housework support (β = 0.02) had significantly higher life satisfaction.

This study explores factors of the Chinese elderly’s life satisfaction and how the life satisfaction differs according to their adult children’s support or dependence. On the whole, the elderly’s life satisfaction is higher, which may be due to their lower age and better health status. In addition, gender, age, health status, and the logarithm of personal annual income had a significant positive effect on the elderly’s life satisfaction. Nevertheless, the elderly living in rural areas were more satisfied with their life than those living in urban areas. Social reference theory holds that cognition is based on the reference environment. Although the income and the quality of life in rural China is much lower than in the cities, the elderly’s expectations in rural areas are much lower. Then, the elderly in rural areas will have a greater sense of self-satisfaction with their children’s support and care [25].

Moreover, the results support Hypothesis 1 in that there is a significant relationship between adult children’s financial support and the elderly’s life satisfaction. Elderly persons who receive their adult children’s financial support are more likely to be happy and satisfied with life. Also, the more visits and calls their children make, for example their adult child contract them at least once a week or almost every day, the more likely they are to be happy and satisfied. Older parents may feel a sense of self- existence and love. If the frequency is relatively lower such as several times a year or several times a month, a possible reason is that the parents will pay more attention to worry about their children. However, the elderly who received housework support from their adult children were less likely to be satisfied with life. A possible reason is that they experienced a decline in their own physical functions and a sense of uselessness.

In addition, the results support Hypothesis 2, indicating that there is also a significant relationship between children’s financial dependence on the elderly and the elderly’s life satisfaction. Some elderly parents are happy when they give money or support to their adult children. If parents want to please their children when they are still healthy and wealthy, they may expect their children to do something in return (physical and/or financial support) when they are too old to live by themselves. This finding supports the social exchange theory [23]. In addition, elderly individuals’ support of their children can bring good psychological feelings such as a sense of identity and self-worth [19,26]. On the contrary, some elderly persons are not happy when they support their adult children, as they may have a negative association with their children still needing help or believe that their children do not really need help. That is, they may have different perceptions of their children’s needs.

These findings provide further support for the social reference theory that people’s perceptions can be altered by a change of reference [24]. For the elderly who are not willing to help their children, a possible reason is that they will experience a decline in their physical functions and reduce the amount of time and energy they spend in social participation [27].

Interestingly, the regression models show that when the sociodemographic variables are controlled for, elderly persons who receive their adult children’s financial and physical support are more satisfied with life than their counterparts who support dependent adult children. Therefore, the traditional intergenerational support model is more conducive to the health and happiness of the elderly.

Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, the data are cross-sectional, precluding confidence in the causal order of intergenerational support and the elderly’s life satisfaction. It is possible that those with higher life satisfaction are more likely to provide support to their children. Longitudinal data are needed to establish temporal order in future research.

Second, the household registration system is a typical system in China, the system leads to differences in work, education, income, housing and social security among people, and the system can also lead to large-scale population migration from the rural to the city in pursuit of higher income and better life. There may be differences in intergenerational support between urban and rural areas, which is not consistent with the impact on the elderly’s life satisfaction in rural area and urban areas. The differences between urban and rural participants should be considered in future research.

Third, based on cultural differences between rural and urban areas, the elderly’s cultural concept of intergenerational support may have affected their assessment of life satisfaction, and this may have had a moderating effect.

Despite these limitations, this study contributes to our knowledge of differences in life satisfaction for the Chinese elderly, based on their adult children’s support or dependence. This study sheds light on the important roles that adult children’s financial and emotional support play in predicting their elderly parents’ life satisfaction. Moreover, the findings reveal that adult children’s financial dependence on their elderly parents plays an important role in predicting their parents’ life satisfaction. Overall, adult children’s support has a greater influence than their dependence on elderly parents’ life satisfaction. This serves as empirical evidence for the intergenerational support described in Fei’s [14] “feedback model” and Blau’s [23], social exchange theory.

Fei’s [14] “feedback model” has a long history in China, with certain cultural support. Filial piety advocated by Confucianists has been a major social value, and a major adversity to this value is not to have a child (especially male child) to carry out the family line. In addition, this model is reflected in cultural characteristics of parents raising their children to help themselves as they are ageing. Therefore, adult children need to provide intergenerational support when their parents are getting old. Although the traditional feedback model still prevails in China today, social changes have taken place. Adult children’s support is not the only way to care the elderly, as the social welfare programs increased in China. On the hand, the elderly people can also help their children relieve the economic pressure with their own resources. For the Chinse elderly, life satisfaction can be maintained and increased both by receiving and giving support to their adult children.

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