Review article: Spectroscopic, Chromatographic and Electrochemical Analysis of Azithromycin in Different Matrices
- 1. Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Sharkia, 44519, Egyp
CONCLUSION
This literature review represents an up to date survey about all reported methods that have been developed for determination of Azithromycin in its pure form, combined form with other drugs, combined form with degradation products, and in biological samples such as liquid chromatography, spectrophotometry, spectroflourimetry, electrochemistry, etc.
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Abstract
In this literature review, we are introducing most of up-to-date reported methods that have been developed for determination of an important antibiotic which is azithromycin in its pure form, combined form with other drugs, combined form with degradation products, and in biological samples.
Keywords
• Literature review • Antibiotic • Azithromycin • Degradation products • Biological samples
INTRODUCTION
Antibiotics are specific chemical substances, originally produced by living organisms. Their structural analogs can be obtained through synthetic routes and are able to inhibit, even at low concentrations, vital processes of one or more species of bacteria. Nowadays, the main classes of commercially available antibiotics are penicillins, macrolides, cephalosporines (β-lactam antibiotics), tetracyclines, and aminoglycosides [1].
Azithromycin (AZM), chemically known as 9-deoxo-9a-aza9a-methyl-9a-homoerythromycin is an antibiotic discovered by a Croatian group of researches, initially named XZ-450. It was developed by PLIVA, in the USA, and had its approval for clinical use in 1991 [2]. AZM is an acid stable orally administered macrolide antimicrobial drug, structurally related to erythromycin, with a similar spectrum of antimicrobial activity [3]
. The drug is noted for its activity against some Gramnegative organisms associated with respiratory tract infections, particularly Haemophilus influenzae. AZM has similar activity to other macrolides against Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis, and is active against atypical pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae [4].
Due to the current importance of this drug in treatment of pandemic COVID-19, this literature focuses on its mode of action and different analytical methods that have been developed for determination of this drug in different pharmaceutical and biological samples.
Pharmacological action
AZM is a macrolide antibiotic which inhibits bacterial protein synthesis and reduces the formation of biofilm. Accumulating effectively in cells, particularly phagocytes, it is delivered in high concentrations to sites of infection, as reflected in rapid plasma clearance and extensive tissue distribution. AZM is indicated for respiratory, urogenital, dermal and other bacterial infections, and exerts immune-modulatory effects in chronic inflammatory disorders, including diffuse panbronchiolitis, post-transplant bronchiolitis and rosacea [5].
1. Spectroscopic methods: 1.1 Spectrophotometric methods:
Drugs | Matrix | Method or reagent | λmax (nm) | Linearity range | LOD | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM | Tablets | Potassium Permanganate | 547 | 2 - 20 μ | ....... | [6] |
AZM | Tablets | Ion pair complex with (Mo(V)–thiocyanate) | 469 | 10−6 M - 10−5 M | 2.54 x 10-7 M | [7] |
AZM | Tablets | UV spectrophotometry | 275 | 1 - 4 m | 0.6490 m | [8] |
AZM & Clarithromycin | Tablets and Human Plasma | Charge transfer reaction with p-chloranilic acid | 530 | 5 - 50 μ-1 | 1.2 μ | [9] |
AZM | UV spectrophotometry | 208 | 10 - 50 µ | 1.6 µ | [10] | |
AZM | Charge transfer reaction with Quinalizarin | 564 | 4 - 20 m | 0.35 mg/L | [11] | |
AZM & Cefixime | Tablets | UV spectrophotometry | 235 | 10 - 50 µ | 1.67 µ | [12] |
AZM & Cefpodoxime | Tablets | UV Simultaneous equation | 218 & 232 | 10-50 μ | 0.52 & 2.20 µ | [13] |
AZM | Tablets | Protonation reaction with sulfuric acid | 482 | 7.5 - 52.5 μ | ....... | [14] |
AZM | Niosomes | Protonation reaction with 75 % sulfuric acid | 482 | 15 - 45 μ | ....... | [15] |
AZM | Tablets | Charge transfer complex with 2,4-Dinitrophenol | 364 | 5 - 30 μ | ........ | [16] |
AZM & Roxithromycin | Tablets | Copper in acidic medium & N?bromosuccinimide | 250 & 264 | 1 - 100 µ 2 - 140 µ | 0.76 & 0.69 µ | [17] |
AZM | Injections | Protonation reaction with 85 % sulfuric acid | 482 | 20 - 70 m | ........ | [18] |
AZM | Tablets | Ion pair complex with bromocresol green (BCG), bromocresol purple (BCB), bromophenol blue (BPB), bromothymol blue (BTB) | 418 & 409& 415& 414 | 2 - 20 & 2 - 18 & 2 - 12 & 2 - 14 µ | 0.15 & 0.16 & 0.23 & 0.14 μ | [19] |
AZM | Tablets | Charge transfer with Alizarin Red | 538 | 10 - 60 μ | ....... | [20] |
AZM | Crystals | Protonation reaction with sulfuric acid | 483 | 18 - 72 μ | ........ | [21] |
AZM | Dispersible tablets | Protonation reaction with 75 % sulfuric acid | 482 | 20 - 80 μ | ....... | [22] |
AZM & Erythromycin | Charge transfer complex with 1,2-naphthoquinone-4- sulphonate | 452 | 1.5 - 33 μ | 0.026 μ | [23] |
1.2. Spectrofluorimetric methods:
Drugs | Matrix | Fluorogenic Reagent (Method ) | λex (nm | λem (nm) | Linearity Range | LOD | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM, erythromycin, clarithromycin & roxithromycin | Tablets, capsules and suspension | Cerium in the presence of sulphuric acid | 255 | 348 | 47.7- 477 n | 11.62 n | [24] |
AZM | tablets | 9.0 mol L−1 HCl | 482 | 515 | 1 - 8 mg/L | 0.23 mg/L | [25] |
AZM, erythromycin, clarithromycin & roxithromycin | Tablets, capsules, granules & suspension | Ion pair formation with eosin-G | 480 | 550 | 0.04 - 2 µ | 0.0114 µ | [26] |
AZM, erythromycin, clarithromycin & roxithromycin | Tablets, capsules, granules, suspension, | I10% (w/v) malonic acid + acetic anhydride | 390 | 448 | 8 3 - 40 n | n | [27] |
AZM | Tablets & live cells | N,S-CQDs | 476 | 528 | 2.5–32.3 μM & 37.2– 110 μM | 0.76 µM | [28] |
2. Chromatographic methods: 2.1. HPLC methods:
Drugs | Matrix | Column | Mobile Phase | Detector | Linearity Range | LOD | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM | Tablets | Xterra C18 column (150× 4.6 mm; 5µ) | Acetonitrile and phosphate buffer (50:50 v/v) | UV at 215 nm | 300 - 700 µ | ------ | [29] |
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | C18 column (5 μm, 250 mm× 4.6 mm) | Isocratic methanol/buffer (90:10 v/v) | UV at 210 nm | 1 - 80 μ | 0.3 μ | [30] |
AZM and Its Related Compounds | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | reversed-phase C18 column | Isocratic elution of phosphate buffer–methanol (20:80) | UV at 210 nm | 0.3 - 2.0 m | 0.0005 m | [31] |
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | column ODS-3 (250 mm× 4.6 mm x 5 μm) | Methanol: Phosphate buffer (9:1 v/v) | PDA at 210 nm | 0.5 - 1.5 m | 28.7 µ | [32] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM | Tablets | C18 column | Mixture of buffer, acetonitrile and methanol (60:20:20) | Amperometric electrochemical detector with dual glass carbon electrodes + UV at 215 nm | 0.6 - 3.0 m | ----- | [33] |
AZM | Oral suspension | Hypersil BDS-C18 column (250 mm × 4.6 mm ) | Methanol, acetonitrile and phosphate buffer | PDA at 212 nm | 1.0 - 50.0 μ | 14.40 n | [34] |
AZM | Injections, capsules and tablets | G1316 A column 250 mm × 4.6 mm, i.d., 5 μm) | Ammonium acetate (0.05 M, pH=8.0) and acetonitrile (60:40, v/v) | Evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD) | 50.93 - 509.30 μ | 6.75 μ | [35] |
AZM | Tablet | C8 column (250 mm X 4.6 mm, 5µ) | Phosphate buffer and methanol in the ratio of (20:80 v/v). | UV at 210 nm | 10 - 80 ppm | 52.246 µ | [36] |
AZM | Tablets and Suspensions | XTerra column (250 mm × 4.6 mm i.d., 5 µm particle size) | acetonitrile- KH2 PO4 – tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide -water (25:15:1:59 v/v/v/v) | UV at 215 nm | 50% - 150% | 0.02% (20 µg) | [37] |
AZM, erythromycin & clarithromycin | fish muscles | Shodex A sahipak column | Acetonitrile and phosphate buffer in the ratio of 60:40 (v/v) | diode array detection at 210 nm | 1.2 - 2.8 μ | ---------- | [38] |
AZM, erythromycin & clarithromycin | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | C18 column (4.6 x 250 mm, 5μ) | mixture of acetonitrile and phosphate buffer (50:50 % v/v) | UV at 210 nm | 500 - 1000 µ | 5.810 µ | [39] |
AZM & Ambroxol Hydrochloride | Tablets | 250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm particle size, C18 (ODS) column | Methanol: acetonitrile: phosphate buffer in ratio of (50:20:30) | electrochemical, fluorescence, mass spectrometry and UV at 260 nm | 25 - 125 µ | ---------- | [40] |
AZM & Dexamethasone | EYE DROPS | GRACE ODS C18,( 250 x 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | Methanol and 0.0335M Phosphate Buffer (pH 7.5) in the ratio of (80:20 v/v) | UV at 230 nm | 0.1 - 12 μ | 1.60 μ | [41] |
AZM | Raw matrial (Analyte) | Quasar C18 (150 x 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | MeOH:Buffer (80:20), (Phosphate, pH 7.5, 0.03 M) | Amperometric electrochemical detection + UV at 210 nm | --------- | --------- | [42] |
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | C18 column, (5µm,250mm× 4.6mm) | Methanol/buffer mobile phase at the ratio of (90:10) | UV at 215nm | 1 - 80 µ | ---------- | [43] |
AZM & Artemether | Suppositorie | Luna C8 EC 5mm, 150mm, 4.6 mm | 80% methanol and 20% phosphate buffer 15 mM at pH 9. | UV at 210 nm | --------- | 0.015 g/L | [44] |
AZM & Erythromycin | Human Urine | ODB RP18 column (250 ×4.6 nm, 5µm) | Acetonitrile –2-methyl-2-propanol– hydrogenphosphate buffer, pH 6.5, with 1.5% triethylamine (33:7: up to 100, v/v/v) | UV at 210 nm | 0.25–15 µg/ mL | 0.12 | [45] |
AZM & Cefixime | Tablets | Hypersil C18 column (250 mm, 4.6mm, 5µm) | Methanol: Buffer in ratio of (85:15) | PDA at 275 nm | 20-80 µ | 0.25 µ | [46] |
AZM & Levofloxacin | Tablets | Waters symmetry shield Rp18 column, (250x4.6x5µ) | Di Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate (60%) and methanol (40%) | UV at 285 nm | 50%- 150% | 20.50 ppm | [47] |
AZM & Cefpodoxime Proxetil | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | C18 (150×4.6 mm, 5 μm) column | Acetonitrile: Methanol: Phosphate buffer (40:40:20 v/v) | UV at 235 nm | 10-50 μ | 2.121 μ | [48] |
AZM and Levofloxacin | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | Symmetry C18 4.6×150mm, 5.0 µm | Ammonium acetate buffer pH 6 ±0.02 pH and methanol (30:70 %v/v) | UV at 262 nm | 20 - 100µg | 0.01 µg | [49] |
AZM | Human plasma and urine | Shimpack CLC-C18 (250 4.6 mm, 5 mm) | 0.01 M KH2 PO4 –ACN (58:42, v/v, final pH 7.5) | UV at 210 nm | 0.1–15 m | 0.03 m | [50] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM & Benzoyl Peroxide | Combined dosage form | Eclipse C18 column (Waters XTerra®, 4.6Χ250 mm, 5μ) | Potassium dihydrogen phosphate and acetonitrile (50:50) | UV-Visible detector and a photodiode array detector | 1-5 µ | 0.009 µ | [51] |
AZM & Cefixime | Pharmaceutical dosage forms | An Agilant Zorbax C8 , 5 μ column having 150 x 4.6mm | Dipotassium Hydrogen Phosphate Buffer: methanol (60:40%v/v) | UV at 230 nm | 250–750 μ | ---------- | [52] |
AZM & Spiramycin | Tablets | reversed phase C18 ODB column (250×4.6 nm) | Acetonitrile –2-methyl-2-propanol– hydrogenphosphate buffer, pH 6.2, with 1.8% triethylamine (32:8: up to 100, v/v/v) | UV at 210 nm | 0.004–4.8 mg/ mL | 0.03% | [53] |
AZM and its related compounds | Capsules and suspension | Xterra RP C18 column | disodium hydrogen phosphate -methanol-acetonitriletetrahydrofuran (40.0 + 30.0 + 30.0 + 0.1, v/v/v/v). | UV at 215 nm | 2-1800 µ | ---------- | [54] |
AZM and Levofloxacin | Tablets | C18 column (250 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | Methanol: potassium dihydrogen phosphate buffer (60:40, v/v) | PDA at 279.6 nm | 500-1500 µ | 2.68 µ | [55] |
AZM and Its Related Compounds | Tablets | Shim pack XR ODS, 75×3.0mm, 2.2 µm column | Mobile phase -A consisting 0.01 M dibasic sodium phosphate buffer and mobile phase -B consisting 750:250 (v/v) of acetonitrile and methanol | UV at 210 nm | --------- | ---------- | [56] |
AZM | Human Plasma | Shimadzu Shim-pack VP-ODS C18 (5 µm, 150 mm × 2.0 mm) column | acetonitrile–water (65:35) (0.5% triethylamine, pH was adjusted to 6.2 with acetic acid) | MS-MS/ESI | 5 - 2000 n | 2 n | [57] |
AZM | .... | reversible phase C8 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5µ) | Dipotassium hydrogen Phosphate and acetonitrile in the ratio of 65:35 | UV at 200 nm | ---------- | ---------- | [58] |
AZM & cefixime | Pharmaceutical dosage form | Supleco C18 (25cm×4.6 mm, 5 µm) column | Na2 HPO4 : Methanol with pH adjusted to 8 | U.V at 273 nm | 50-150 µ | 3 µg /mL | [59] |
AZM & Ambroxol Hydrochloride | Combined dosage form | C18 phenomenex Gemini (5m, 250cm x 4.6mm) | Acetonitrile and mono basic potassium phosphate buffer of pH 8.5 in the ratio of 65:35 v/v | PDA at 220 nm | 96-145 m | 31.91 m | [60] |
AZM & related compounds | Capsule and suspension | Xterra RP C18 column | Disodium hydrogen phosphate (pH 10.5) : methanol : acetonitrile tetrahydrofuran (40: 30.:30 :0.1, v/v/v/v). | UV at 215 nm | 2-1800 µg /mL | 0.49 µg / mL | [61] |
AZM & Cefpodoxime | Tablets | Hypurity C18 column | methanol: Toluene: potassium dihydrogen phosphate buffer (60:30:10, v/v/v) | UV at 218 nm | 1-6 µg / mL | 0.250 μ | [62] |
2.2. HPTLC methods;
Drugs | Matrix | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detector | Linearity range | LOD | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage form | Silica gel F25 | chloroform-ethanol-ammonia 6:14:0.2 (v/v) | fluorescence indicator at 483nm | 0.08 - 1.2 µg/ zone | 40 ng/ zone | [63] |
AZM & cefixime | Pure compound | silica gel 60F254 | mixture of ethyl acetate– methanol–acetone–toluene– ammonia (1:5:7:0.5:0.5, v/v) | UV at 235 nm | 50- 250 ng/ band | 3.25 ng/ band | [64] |
AZM ,Chloroquine, & Paracetamol | Pharmaceutical dosage form | 60 F silica gel plate | Mixture of methanol-25% ammonia (100:1.5, v/v) | UV at 254 nm | 0.1 – 10 m | ---------- | [65] |
3. Electrochemical methods:
Drugs | Matrix | Electrode | Linearity range | LOD | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AZM | Tablets & capsules | Glassy carbon | 1-15 µ | 0.7 µ | [66] |
AZM | Capsules | carbon paste | 1.57–6.28 ppb 1.57–4.71 ppb 0.785–4.71 ppb 0.471–7.07 ppb | 1.544 ppb 0.955 ppb 0.716 ppb 0.463 ppb | [67] |
AZM | Capsules & Suspension | Glassy Carbon | 1 – 10 µg/mL 0.25 – 2 µg/mL | 0.29 µg/mL 0.11 µg/mL | [68] |
AZM | Capsules & Urine sample | multi wall carbon nanotubes | 1.0 × 10−7 mol/L _ 2.0 × 10−6 mol/L 2.0 × 10−6 mol/L _ 2.0 × 10−5 mol/L | 0.07 µg/mL | [69] |
AZM | Tablets | Modified carbon paste | 0.49–28.57 µg/mL | 1.1 × 10−8 mol/L | [70] |
AZM | Tablets | graphene and ionic liquid composite film | 4.81-23.3 µg/mL 1.96-28.6 µg/mL 1.48-25.9 µg/mL | 0.19 µg/mL | [71] |
AZM, Clarithromycin, Roxithromycin | Capsules, Tablets & Urine | renewable silver-Amalgam film | 1.0–10.0 mg/L | 1.544 µg/mL | [72] |
AZM | Tablets | glassy carbon | 0.28 – 30 × 10− 8 M- 0.84 – 22.5 × 10− 8 M | 0.76 mg/L | [73] |
AZM & Hydroxychloroquine | Plasma, Tablets & capsules | diamond | 0.0038 - 62.5 µM | 0.091 × 10− 8 M 0.277 × 10− 8M | [74] |
AZM | Tablets | multilayer film-modified | 0.3 - 920.0 nM | 1.27 nM |
[75] |
AZM | Blood serum | A gold nano urchins/ graphene oxide modified glassy carbon | ----------- | 0.1 nM | [76] |
AZM | Capsules | gold | 13.33 × 10-3 - 66.66 × 10-3 µg/mL | 3.002 × 10-9 mol/L | [77] |
AZM | Urine, Plasma & Tears | Glassy carbon | 0.1 - 10 µM | 0.85 ×10-3 µg/ mL | [78] |
AZM | Capsules & Urine | Glassy carbon | 1.0 × 10−10 _ 4.0 × 10−7 mol/L | 0.07 - µM | [79] |
AZM | Urine & plasma | Modified carbon paste | 3.0×10-7 - 2.5× 10-5 mol/L | 2.3 × 10−11 mol/L [ | [80] |
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage form | Glassy carbon | 0.000471 – 0.00707 µg/mL 0 | 1.0×10-7 mol/L | [81] |
AZM, Erythromycin ethylsuccinate, Clarithromycin & Roxithromycin | Capsules & Tablets | Modified carbon paste | 0.5 - 10.0 μM | 0.000463 µg/mL | [82] |
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage form | Screen printed carbon | 0.075 – 0.675 mg/cm3 | 0.08 μM | [83] |
AZM | Raw material | Glassy carbon | 0.5-3.5 µg/mL | 0.044 mg/cm3 | [84] |
AZM | Plasma | Glassy carbon | --------- | 0.2 µgmL | [85] |
AZM | Wastewater | Surface of screen-printed carbon | 1×10-2 _5×10-7 M 1×10-2_5×10-6 M 1×10-2_6×10-7 M 1×10-2_2×10-6 M | 0.08 µM | [86] |
AZM | Tablets & Capsules | Coated graphite | ---------- | 2×10-7 M 2×10-6 M 5×10-7 M 7×10-7 M | [87] |
AZM, Ciprofloxacin & 5-aminosalicylic acid | Tablets & Capsules | Paraffin impregnated graphite | 3.4 ×10-10 _ 1. 0×10-5 mol/L | --------- | [88] |
AZM, Tetracycline, levomycitin & Streptomycin | Tablets, Capsules, Eye drops, Injectable solution, Urine, Tissue & Blood | Glassy carbon | ---------- | --------- | [89] |
AZM | Raw material | Calomel /Copper /Platinum | 0.01_0. 5 x 10–6 mole/L | --------- | [90] |
AZM | Pharmaceutical dosage form | Mercury film/ Glassy carbon | 0.235 - 0.588 mg/cm3 | --------- | [91] |
AZM | Tablets | Glassy carbon | 1 - 5 mM | --------- | [92] |
AZM | Raw material | Glassy carbon | 1.0–10.0 mg/L | --------- | [93] |
Review of analytical methods
Various techniques were used for the analysis of AZM in pure forms, in their pharmaceutical formulations and in biological fluids. The available reported methods in the literature can be summarized as follows: