Evidence of continued lead exposure and toxicosis in Canadian wildlife from lead ammunition and fishing weights exists especially for eagles, Common Loons (Gavia immer), and American Woodcock (Scolopax minor). A transition to non-lead products applies currently only at the national level, to all waterfowl hunting, and fishing in national parks. No transition has occurred at provincial and territorial levels. Provisions in the Migratory Birds Convention Act (MBCA) and the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) could be used to regulate further uses of lead hunting ammunition and fishing weights, consistent with existing federal policy on anthropogenic uses of lead. Federal lead reduction precedents exist that already apply to all Canadian provinces and territories. Under the MBCA and CEPA use of all non-lead hunting ammunition and fishing weights could apply throughout Canada, while provinces would still retain full jurisdiction over the practical aspects of hunting and fishing. This regulative solution would reduce further lead exposure to all terrestrial and aquatic birds. A national ban on lead fishing weights would complement US states laws implemented to reduce lead exposure in aquatic avian species. Human frequent consumers of game meat would also benefit from reduced lead exposure from harvested game. An opportunity exists for the Canadian Veterinary Medical Association and the American Veterinary Medical Association to address this ‘One Health’ issue together because improving human health directly improves birds’ health.

• Jurisdiction
• Transition
• Exposure
• Toxicity
• Wildlife Health

Thomas VG (2025) Enhancing Canadian Bird Conservation through Further Federal Regulation of Lead Hunting and Angling Products. J Vet Med Res 12(1): 1276.

MBCA: Migratory Bird Convention Act; CEPA: Canadian Environmental Protection Act; NTSR: Non-toxic Shot Regulations

Centuries of hunting and angling have left many tonnes of unclaimed lead in diverse wildlife habitats. The toxic health risks to wild birds and mammals arising from ingested lead derived from ammunition and fishing weights are well-documented [1-3]. Spent lead shot may be ingested by wetland and upland bird species that mistake it for grit or foods. Lead-core expanding rifle bullets fragment on impact, sending lead particles into adjacent tissues and viscera, which, when discarded, are consumed by avian scavengers. Lead fishing sinkers attached to live bait are ingested by piscivorous birds, and discarded sinkers may be ingested by other aquatic species [4]. Game birds and mammals hunted by humans who frequently consume game may contain residual lead shot and bullet fragments that present a health risk [5,6]. Regardless of source, ingested lead, following dissolution and absorption, exerts a toxic effect on all bird species. Wildlife veterinarians are usually the first to treat lead-exposed birds and perform autopsies and are the most aware of this issue.

The Canadian constituencies responsible for this form of lead pollution and the species affected by it are defined clearly. Approved non-toxic lead substitutes are available for all hunting and angling, and national policies and regulations exist that could be used to reduce lead products’ use. Canada has only partially regulated an end to use of some lead ammunition and fishing weights. Canada followed the US initiative and banned lead shot use for waterfowl hunting in 2000 and banned lead fishing weights in all national parks in 1997 [7]. In Provinces and Territories use of lead fishing weights in waterbodies outside national parks, hunting with lead rifle ammunition, and hunting non-migratory upland game birds with lead gunshot remains legal.

A definition of ‘lead’ is necessary. Elemental, metallic lead found in the environment is of anthropogenic, not natural, origin and exists as spent lead ammunition, lost fishing weights, and lost wheel balance weights. Lead compounds occurring naturally as ores are not associated with toxicosis in wildlife and humans. However, some toxic lead compounds that were used in paints, glass, and gasoline have been banned. Canadian federal policy supports reduced use and environmental presence of lead. Lead is categorized as a toxic chemical under Schedule 1 of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) [8], meaning that its use is to be reduced nationally. This follows the broad trend of regulation in many other nations [9]. However, use of lead in hunting and angling has not received the same Canadian federal concern. A statement regarding the use of lead shooting and angling products in Canada was released for public comment [10,11] but this was not acted on. To date, no province or territory has passed any regulation of lead hunting ammunition and fishing weights. This paper presents evidence of continuing unregulated toxic lead exposure in Canadian migratory and non-migratory species. The paper indicates how amendment of the Canadian MBCA and CEPA could achieve a broader regulation of lead products’ use in hunting and angling that is consistent with federal policy on lead reduction. The paper indicates how a federal restriction of lead products’ use could be achieved without conflicting with provincial jurisdiction over hunting and fishing.

Fishing Weights

Only about one sixth of Canada’s rivers and lakes’ area is in national parks, the remainder occurring in provinces and territories. The National Parks Act and the National Wildlife Act were used to enact a ban on lead fishing weights in national parks in 1997, obviating the need to obtain provincial agreement on a nation-wide ban. Consequently, in the absence of any provincial regulation, it is still legal to use lead weights in the majority of Canadian waters. The rationale for banning lead weights in national parks was the prevention of lead exposure and mortality of fish eating birds, especially Common Loons (Gavia immer) that were the main species of concern. That rationale remains unchanged [12]. Lost lead fishing weights also cause mortality in other avian species, both migratory and non- migratory [4].

Conservation of Common Loons falls under the Canada- USA Migratory Bird Treaty of 1918, enacted in Canada through the MBCA. However, use of this Act would imply regulation at a national level, something not intended in 1997. However, in the same manner that lead exposure and toxicosis in Canadian migratory waterfowl justified a lead shot ban in 2000, evidence of major lead exposure and mortality of Common Loons could be regarded as grounds for a wider national ban on lead fishing weights. The contribution of lead from sinkers to mortality of Canadian Common Loons from waterbodies outside of national parks was examined by Twiss and Thomas [12]. Twenty-three percent of birds examined from across Canada by board-certified pathologists were diagnosed as having died from lead ingestion. The percentage increased to 27% when only adult birds were considered. This is because immature loons were not seen to have ingested lead weights. These results agree with similar analyses of Common Loon mortality in north-eastern United States. Twenty-two percent of the American birds found dead had died from lead sinker ingestion. The percentage increased to 38% of adult loons, and 57% of adult birds collected from only fresh water, as opposed to sea water where less angling occurs [13,14]. Mortality from lead weight ingestion is demonstrably a serious issue for the species in both Canada and the USA. Accordingly, five north-eastern US states (Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont) have already enacted regulations to reduce lead-induced mortality of Common Loons.

Lead Rifle Ammunition

The lead core of rifle bullets fragments on impact, sending small lead particles into adjacent tissues, especially those removed and discarded by hunters as ‘gut piles’. Avian scavengers, especially Golden and Bald Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos, Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and Ravens (Corvus corax) feed on these abundant remains in Canada and ingest lead fragments leading to lead toxicosis [3,15]. Mathieu et al. [16] reported that 74% of Bald Eagles that died from poisoning during 1991-2016 in eastern Canada had liver lead levels ≥6 µg/g, indicative of lead toxicosis. Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) would also be lead exposed in the early part of hunting seasons (prior to migration) and from eating discarded nuisance animals. Canadian data for lead exposure in this species do not exist. Ingestion of carrion is the major route of lead into Canadian scavenging birds because of annual big game hunting in every Canadian province and territory. For example, in 2023, 51,669 White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and 2,915 Moose (Alces alces) were killed in Ontario [17]. In Quebec, in 2023, the numbers were 63,962 and 21,289, respectively [18]. These figures do not include other provinces and territories, other hunted species, the numbers of animals killed by First Nation Canadians, nor animals killed as pests and left in the field [19].

Lead Gunshot

In Canada it is still legal to use lead gunshot for all species hunting except migratory species of waterfowl, and, in southern Ontario, Mourning Doves (Zenaida macroura). This also applies to the federally-regulated migratory hunted species American Woodcock (Scolopax minor), Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), and in British Columbia, Mourning Doves and White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica). American Woodcock in Canada are lead exposed directly from environmental lead in spent gunshot [20,21]. This species is protected and managed under the Canadian MBCA. The Nontoxic Shot Regulations (NTSR) of the MBCA do not apply to hunting this species despite its being hunted with lead gunshot. This is likely because these regulations, when introduced in Canada in 1999, were required for migratory waterfowl species alone, then known to be the principal victims of lead exposure derived from spent lead gunshot in wetlands [22].

Woodcock breeding ground surveys for both the Eastern and Central Management Regions reveal significant long-term population declines during 1968-2022. The trend estimate was -0.84%/yr for the Eastern Region and -0.62%/yr for the Central Region which include both Canadian provinces and US states [23]. Consistent with these negative trends are hunter harvest data from both Regions that reveal significant declines below a long-term average in the numbers of woodcock taken during 1999- 2021 (Figure 7 in [23]). These declines are apparent in both the numbers of successful Canadian woodcock hunters from 1972-2018, and the estimated size of the Canadian woodcock harvest from 1969-2018 [24]. Bone lead analyses reveal that woodcock from the eastern Canadian provinces are seriously lead exposed across all age classes, as are woodcock from the US population (Table 1),

Table 1: Bone lead levels in American Woodcock of different ages from Canadian and US locations. YOY denotes young of the year: AHY, after hatch year, or adult birds. The 20µgPb/g DM threshold is regarded as the lead level at which acute lead exposure occurs [28].

with levels often far above those found in other species of lead-exposed birds [20,25-28]. Of especial concern is the proportion of each age class that contains bone lead above the 20µgPb/g DM threshold regarded as indicative of acute lead exposure (Table 1). Although the studies of Scheuhammer et al. [20,21] showed that the isotopic ratio of lead in woodcock bones was similar to those of gunshot, the ratio of lead in earthworms (their principal food) was not similar, suggesting that other sources of lead were being consumed. However, Stamberov and Tatchev [29] reported that earthworms inhabiting soils with heavy lead shot burdens ingest metallic lead particles derived from the shot. Those lead particles could be consumed by species that feed extensively on earthworms. This circumstantial evidence, together with the observation that lead deposited in woodcock bones originates from lead gunshot, suggests that an end to lead shot use in woodcock hunting is warranted.

The existing Canadian NTSR that prohibit the use of lead shot for hunting migratory species of waterfowl have not had any beneficial impact on woodcock (Stevenson et al., 2005) because there is no major coincidence of these species’ habitats. Stevenson et al. [30] compared the bone lead levels in samples of immature woodcock collected in Canada in 1995 (before a ban on lead shot use) and 2000 (after the national 1997 ban on lead shot). The mean level in 1997 was 19µgPb/gDry Matter (DM) (N = 955 birds), not different from the 2000 level of 21µgPb/ gDM (N = 399 birds) [30]. However, the means for the two samples remain close to the 20 µgPb/gDM acute bone level threshold. Woodcock in the USA are as lead-exposed as Canadian birds (Table 1) and migratory movement of lead-exposed birds between the two countries is likely occurring. The high percentages of lead exposed woodcock in both the Canadian and US samples (Table 1) indicate that their prospects for longevity are poor, and could contribute to the species population decline. Thus there is need to resolve this exposure issue bilaterally, especially as both countries are Parties to the US-Canada Migratory Bird Treaty.

Fishing Weights

While the Canada Parks Act and the National Wildlife Act apply only to the use of non-lead fishing weights in national parks, the nation-wide conservation and management of Common Loons falls under the MBCA. In the same manner that the NTSR of the MBCA were passed to prevent further lead exposure of waterfowl, the MBCA could be the rationale to require the national use of non- lead fishing weights to promote the health of Common Loons and that of other migratory species known to ingest lead sinker [4]. Grade et al. [31] estimated that the population growth rate of the north-eastern US Common Loons was declining because of lead exposure at about 1.4% annually. This is a large loss across years and may also apply to this species in Canada given the comparable rates of lead exposure and consequent mortality. Common Loons range across the entire USA and Canada, so this proposed amendment of the MBCA would complement the regulations of the five individual US states and enhance conservation at the continental level. While mortality of Common Loons is the main concern for action, a national restriction on use of lead fishing weights would also benefit other Canadian loon species (Gavia stellata, G. pacifica, G. arctica, and G. adamsii) in a precautionary manner.

A parallel and complementary approach would be using CEPA to regulate lead sport fishing weights via a prohibition on sale and manufacture. This would offer national protection to birds that might ingest them and the waters into which lead weights would eventually dissolve.

Lead Gunshot

The evidence concerning lead exposure risks to American Woodcock (Table 1) provides the strongest evidence to ban lead shot for hunting this species in Canada. Amendment of the NTSR could be done to achieve this goal. A further consideration is the extension of such amended regulations to cover other hunted migratory species such as Common Snipe, and Mourning Doves and White-winged Doves in British Columbia. There is an important precedent related to such an amendment. Prior to 2013, Mourning Doves were a protected species in Canada east of British Columbia. In 2013, the Canadian government created a new hunting season for Mourning Doves in the Central and Southern Districts of Ontario, stipulating that nontoxic shot be used for hunting doves in these Districts [32]. Mandating nontoxic shot use in this case was precautionary, and not based on evidence of widespread lead toxicosis in the Ontario dove population.

This Canadian precedent could be extended to woodcock hunting, especially given the extensive Canadian evidence of lead accumulation from Canadian habitats and population decline. In Canada the existing NTSR apply when hunting woodcock in all National Wildlife Refuges, but the area of such federal refuges is a small proportion of the total range of woodcock across Canada. Moreover, the rationale for banning lead shot for hunting migratory birds under the MBCA would not apply to hunting non- migratory species under provincial jurisdiction.

Many decades of terrestrial gamebird hunting have resulted in large amounts of accumulated lead shot in diverse habitats, lead that will take centuries to corrode [33], depending on soil pH. Species of birds, in addition to American Woodcock and Common Snipe, that forage in the soil and litter for worms (e.g. Thrushes (Turdidae) and Gray catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis)) are likely to be lead exposed, given the propensity of earthworms to ingest lead from soils [29]. Prudent management would caution against adding more lead shot to these habitats.

Lead Bullets

The many thousands of gut piles produced each year across Canada (and also the USA) are the major source of lead to avian scavengers. Eagles, ravens and crows that ingest lead fragments from gut piles and un-retrieved killed game fall under provincial jurisdiction, but Turkey Vultures are regulated federally. The most effective procedure is to ban all lead ammunition (both rifle and shotgun) under CEPA. This would offer national protection to all bird and mammal species from lead exposure, including soils, waters and their biota, consistent with its use in ending other forms of anthropogenic lead use in Canada. An important recent precedent is the use of CEPA to ban metallic lead wheel weights in 2024 [34]. The greatest impact of such regulation would likely be an immediate reduction in the annual lead exposure from shot and bullet remnants in scavenged animals.

The premise of federal environmental regulation is that it benefits the health of humans and their environment nation-wide. Including lead in Schedule1 of CEPA means that its use and presence in the environment is a priority case for reduction. Thus, under CEPA non-lead gasolines were required from 1990 and non-lead wheel weights were required in 2024 [34]. These legal precedents at the federal level could be used to introduce similar progressive changes at the provincial and territorial level. While the federal action under CEPA that banned leaded fuel and metallic lead wheel weights in vehicles applies throughout Canada, matters related to other issues of vehicles and their public use in provincial transportation (e.g. licencing, speed limits) remains a provincial jurisdiction. Simply stated, fuels and wheel weights are now non-lead, their use does not restrict vehicular operation, and these federal regulations do not conflict with provincial jurisdiction. To date, no province or territory has appealed the introduction of these progressive requirements. Were the use of non-lead fishing weights required under the MBCA (or EPA), and non-lead hunting ammunition were required under the MBCA and CEPA, provincial regulation of the practical aspects of recreational hunting and fishing would still prevail. No province’s regulation requires explicitly the use of only lead in fishing sinkers and ammunition. The provinces and territories authority over hunting and fishing pertains to species, seasons, bag limits, areas allowed, enforcement, limits on gear, and licencing among others. Requiring the use of non-lead products would not conflict with any province’s jurisdiction over these recreational practices. It would mean only that the ammunition in the gun and the sinker on a fishing line were now non- lead. A restriction under CEPA would extend regulation already deemed necessary under the MBCA, the Parks Act, and National Wildlife Act and would render unnecessary regulation by individual provinces and territories.

The transition to non-lead products assumes that non-toxic substitutes exist in Canada. Federally-approved non-lead shotgun ammunition (under the NTSR of MBCA) and non-lead fishing weights are already used in Canada. Non-lead shotgun and rifle ammunition is available in all commonly-used gauges (calibers) and loads for hunting all species of Canadian game whether federally or provincially regulated. The ballistic performances of non-lead ammunition and their economic costs are not impediments to their use [7,35,36]. While the chemical composition of non-lead fishing weights is not subject to any regulation, the commonest substitute materials are those (tungsten, bismuth, tin, stainless steel, and bronze) that have already received full legal approval as non-toxic lead shot substitutes in Canada.

Were a federal restriction on lead hunting and fishing products envisaged, the definition of ‘restriction’ is critical regarding enforcement and compliance. A prohibition of sale under CEPA would achieve a lead reduction, but the issue of ‘use’ and ‘possession’ also needs consideration. A ban on possession would be the most extreme restriction, as now happens in Denmark [37]. If both the MBCA and CEPA were used to regulate use of non-lead products, a beneficial regulative overlap (or redundancy) would exist, together with the Parks Act and the National Wildlife Act. A complete transition to non-lead products is not possible without the legislation that creates the long-term public demand for, and availability of, non-lead products [38]. While the solution presented to resolving the Canadian piecemeal approach to lead regulation may appear radical and extensive, a comparison with Europe is warranted because of similar experiences with lead exposure in birds [39]. The European Parliament prohibited use of lead gunshot for hunting in wetlands in all 27 member states in 2023, and is proposing to extend further use of non-lead ammunition and sinkers to all hunting and fishing [40].

The causes and consequences of lead exposure in Canadian and American birds are also the same [3]. While US regulations exist to reduce lead exposure from both ammunition and fishing weights they are uncoordinated due largely to conflicts at the federal-state and within- state levels [41]. The US Center for Biological Diversity [42] petitioned the US Environmental Protection Agency to use its legislation to ban lead fishing weights, but this action has not been adopted.

Lead remnants in hunted animals that affect scavenging birds also seriously affect the health of humans who frequently eat game [6,43,44] creating a One Health issue [3]. Reducing human lead exposure through use of non- lead ammunition under CEPA would be a simultaneous benefit to birds (and other scavenging mammals). It would also obviate the need for the Canada Health Act to be involved, since this act applies only to commercial meat products, not hunted game foods.

The Veterinary Medical Associations of Canada and the USA, including the Association of Avian Veterinarians, have released position statements advocating a ban on lead ammunition [45,46] to reduce lead exposure in birds and other wildlife. However, they have not indicated how this could be achieved. There is opportunity for the professional North American veterinary associations (including the Association of Avian Veterinarians, the American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, and the Alliance of Veterinarians for the Environment) to unite with human medical associations to address this form of lead pollution as a ‘One Health’ issue. Enhancing the health of birds via concerns about human health is a real possibility given the regulative options and legal precedents that exist in both Canada and the USA.

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