Fumonisins are the phytotoxic mycotoxins mainly synthesized by species of Fusarium such as by F. verticillioides (formerly Fusarium moniliforme=Gibberella fujikuroi), F. proliferatum, F. anthophilum, F. nygamai, F. oxysporum, F. globosum and other species like Alternaria alternate among which F. verticillioides is the worldwide recognized species in production of fumonisin in association with cereals and cereal based food products. Worldwide contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins is a significant problem. Corn based foods and animal feeds are mainly associated with fumonisins due to N-fatty acylated fumonisin estimating free FB1 and total bound FB1 in corn foods and thebinding of fumonisins to cholestyramine which is a potential means of detoxification of animal feed. The economic impact of mycotoxins includes loss of human and animal life, increased health care and veterinary care costs, reduced livestock production, disposal of contaminated foods and feeds. Fumonisins arehighly carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic and embryotoxic in animals and in humans fumonisins are associated with oesophageal cancer and neural tube defects.

Deepa N, Sreenivasa MY (2017) Fumonisins: A Review on its Global Occurrence, Epidemiology, Toxicity and Detection. J Vet Med Res 4(6): 1093.

•    Fusarium verticillioides
•    Fumonisins
•    Effects
•    Pathogenic
•    Phytotoxic

ELEM: Equine Leukoencephalomalacia; ELISA: Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay; RFLP: Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism; RAPD: Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA; PROMEC: Programme on Mycotoxins and Experimental Carcinogenesis; IARC: International Agency for Research on Cancer; FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization; MRC: Medical Research Council; CSIR: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research; FB: Fumonisins; HPLC: High Performance Liquid Chromatography; TLC: Thin Layer Chromatography; LC: Liquid Chromatography; GC: Gas Chromatography; DESI: Desorption Electrospray Ionization; LCMS: Liquid Chromatography – Mass Spectrometers

Fumonisins were first discovered in 1988 at Programme on Mycotoxins and Experimental Carcinogenesis (PROMEC) of the Medical Research Council (MRC) in Tygerberg, South Africa [1] and its chemical structure was first elucidated by Bezuidenhout et al. [2], in a collaborative effort between PROMEC and Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in Pretoria. Fumonisins are mainly associated with corn and corn based foods [3]. Till today 28 fumonisins have been isolated which further divides into four series such as A, B, C and P among which Fumonisin B found to be the major contaminant in cereals which subdivides into FB1, FB2, FB3 and FB4. Recently during food processing concerning to heat FB1 usually binds to proteins and other components in which the bound fumonisins were found to be common in processed corn foods, rice flour, corn starch and corn meal. Aspergillus niger was found to be the producer of FB2 from coffee and grapes, and FB4from coffee. Coffee beans, wine and beer were found to be the source of FB2 other than maize and sorghum [4].

FB1 comprises of 70% and found to be the most prominent worldwide attention seeking fumonisins compared to other FB2, FB3 and FB4 [5,6]. Fumonisins are ubiquitous in distribution and are found frequently on freshly harvested and stored agricultural commodities from many parts of the world. FB1 is not only associated with maize and corn based foods, but also found to be allied in rice, sorghum, pearl millet, beans, wheat noodles, curry, chili pickle, cowpea, triticale, asparagus [7], soya beans in japan [8], beer [9], red wine in Italy [10,11], cassava products in Tanzania [12], garlic [13,14], onion [13], black radish [15], black tea [16,17], figs in Turkey [18,19], peanuts in Ivoire, Cameroon in china [20], cow’s milk in Italy, milk [21,22], eggs [23], meat [24] dietary and medicinal plants in South Africa, orange leaves, flowers of linden and chamomile in Portugal [16], mint, stinging nettle in Turkey [17], sage leaves, valerian root in Spain [25], and corn based brewing adjuncts.

Fumonisins contamination in maize has been increasing day to day since they are omnipresent in all the maize and maize based products like cereals, cornmeal, corn flakes [26], tortillas, tortilla chips in Italy [27], popcorn [28], sweet corn in Italy [29]. In India, certain reports documented FB1 contamination in maize and poultry feeds infected with F. moniliforme was found to be high in Haryana [30]. A study from Karnataka reported 59.20% of relative density with association of F. verticillioides from cereal samples collected in which 29 maize samples were infected with the F. verticillioides out of 61 maize samples [31].

In 1988, chemical structure of fumonisins was explained and named as fumonisin B1 (FB1 ) and fumonisin B2 (FB2 ) respectively by Bezuidenhout et al.,[2]; Gelderbloom et al.[32]. F. verticillioides cultures were used to study the structure of fumonisins and later FB3 and FB4 were characterized [33,34]. Fumonisin B1 is white in color with the molecular formula C34H59NO15, molecular weight 721g/mol and it is a hydroscopic powder soluble in water or methanol [Table 1]. Fumonisins due to its 4 carboxyl groups derived from glutamic acid, hydroxyl groups and amino group derived from serine and methyl groups derived from methionine are soluble in polar solvents and insoluble in organic solvents like chloroform and hexane [35]. FB1 and FB2 remain stable in methanol at –18º C and in acetonitrile-water (1:1) at 25º C for over a period of 6 months but degrades at 25º C and above.

Fumonisin B1 resembles lipid sphingosine with the diester of propane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylicacid and 2S-amino-12S, 16R-dimethyl-3S, 5R, 10R, 14S, 15R-pentahydroxyeicosane in which the C-14 and C-15 hydroxy groups are esterified with the terminal carboxy group of propane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylic acid and has hydroxyl groups at C-3, C-5, C-10. FB2 to FB4 show different hydroxylation patterns. FB2 and FB3 exhibits isomers along with the hydroxyl groups at C-3, C-5 and C-3, C-10 and FB4 is similar to FB2 and FB3 except one lesser number of hydroxyl group [Figure 1]. Fumonisins A1 and A2 are N-acetyl derivates of FB1 and FB2 and FC1 differs from FB1 with lack of methyl group at C-1. Iso-FB1 was isolated from F. moniliforme NRRL 13613 which varies with FB1 in the location of hydroxyl group at C-4 instead of C-5 [36]. FB1 production occurs at the favorable conditions of polyketides and sesquiterpenes which imitates the synthesis of FB1 and FB2 backbones from independent polyketide. Fumonisins optimum production requires moderate water activity, limited nitrogen, high oxygen and low pH and its production doubles for every 48 hrs with increase in the mycelial dry weight [37].

Fumonisins structurally resembles sphingosine with its polyhydric alcohol moiety and its mechanism of action is mediated through inhibition of ceramide synthesis being a key enzyme disrupts entire sphingolipid metabolism in cells, tissues, hepatocytes, neurons and renal cells [38]. Sphingolipids biosynthesis occurs in endoplasmic reticulum by hydrolysis of complex sphingolipids to ceramides, and then to sphingosine, which is phosphorylated and cleaved to a fatty aldehyde and ethanolamine phosphate which is incorporated into phosphatidyl-ethanolamine [37]. This mechanism effects protein kinase activity on cell differentiation, cell growth, apoptosis and carcinogenicity. Sphingolipid biosynthesis can be altered since it leads an important role in diseases and carcinogenesis in DNA damage for FB1 [39].

Fumonisins causes toxicological effects in animals and humans since, sphingolipids exhibit complex role in cell function by affecting a great number of processes. Spingoid bases accumulation in cells causes inhibition of normal cells growth leading to cytotoxicity. They also inhibit protein kinase C, Na+ / K+ ATPase and activate phospholipase D, activates or inhibits the enzymes involved in lipid signaling pathways and induce dephosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein. The above said processes generally increase the risk of cancer through apoptosis and lipid mediators that regulates cell proliferation [40]. Inhibition of ceramide synthesis resulted in accumulation of free sphingamine in liver, lung and kidney which is a hydrophobic compound that crosses cell membranes and will be present in blood and urine [38] [Figure 2]. The mechanism of FB1 in cell generally targets the liver and kidney in many of the animals by increased apoptotic and oncotic necrosis, regeneration and bile duct hyperplasia in case of liver.

Feeding horses with FB by intravenous injection and orally or with naturally contaminated corn, corn screenings and corn based feeds causes leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses [41]. FB1 causes pulmonary edema syndrome (PES) and hydrothorax in pigs via intravenous injections or through the consumption of contaminated corn screenings [42]. During 1989-1990 PES in corn screenings outbreaks was reported in US with <1-330μg/g fumonisin B1 and <1-48μg/g of fumonisin B2 [43] [Table 2]. FB1 is classified as Group 2B carcinogen compound by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 2002.Voss et al. [44], reported the HFB1 hydrolysis product of FB1 exhibiting sphingolipid metabolism without causing any neural tube defects in mouse model. Blood-brain barrier was permeated in young carp reporting the neurotoxicity of FB1 [45]. Oxidative stress genotoxicity in rats was mediated in the culture material with FB1 [46]. Two papers reported on the protective effects of teas and natural health products: royal jelly had protective effects against fumonisin toxicity in rats [47], and herbal teas (rooibos and honeybush) as well as black and green teas protected against cancer promotion by FB1 in rat liver [48].

In humans, corn associated with fumonisins or contaminated with F. verticillioides documents the high incidence of esophageal cancer in Transkei region of South Africa [49], Northern Italy [50], Linxhian region of China [51] and in South-eastern United and Golestan, a province in Iran [52]. Though the causal effects of oesophageal cancer are unknown, epidemiological studies suggests that FB1 is in association with neural tube defects by disrupting the folate receptors on membrane causing reduction in folate absorption among infants in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, the Northern provinces of China and along the Texas-Mexico border in Northern America [53]. FB1 is hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, hepatocarcinogenic and cancer promoting and initiating in rats and also found to be cytotoxic in mammalian cell [32,54-56] [Table 2].

Consumption of fumonisin has been associated with elevated human oesophageal cancer incidence in various parts of Africa, Central America, and Asia and among the black population in Charleston, South Carolina, USA. Since, fumonisin B1 reduces uptake of folate in different cell lines, fumonisin consumption has been implicated in neural tube defects in human babies. Some correlation studies have suggested a link between the consumption of maize with high incidence of F. verticillioides and fumonisins and the high incidence of human oesophageal carcinoma in certain parts of South Africa [57]. Fumonisins are also phytotoxic in which certain studies reported that FB1 were toxic at low concentration to broad leaf weeds including black nightshade, redroot, pigweed, duck weed, pricky sida, jimsonweed, sunflower, common cocklebur, hemp sesbania, soybean, venice mallow and spurred anode exhibiting chlorosis, necrosis, stunting, chlorophyll loss, growth inhibition and mortality symptoms [58].

Most of the analytical and traditional methods were practiced for the detection of fumonisins such as chromatographic methods, immunological methods and molecular methods. Chromatographic methods involved Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Liquid Chromatography (LC) and Gas Chromatography (GC) for separation and quantification [66,67]. The most common extraction method followed for fumonisins was High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescent detection, separation and quantification based on intensity of fluorescence observed [68,69]. From past two decades’ advancement in detection method was followed by introducing Liquid Chromatography – Mass Spectrometers (LC-MS) which was more sensitive and specific for detection and quantification with limit as low as 0.001µg/g of fumonisins along with disadvantage of high running and maintenance costs and the same instrumentation method has been followed in our present study. Developed analytical method such as a membrane-based colloidal gold immunoassay lateral flow test for the detection of FB1 was applied to govern the sum of all three FB1, FB2 and FB3 toxins in maize [70,71]. Molecularly imprinted Polymer (MIP) was developed to analyze FB1, FB2 and FB3 in pepper, rice and corn flakes and determined by LC-MS [72]. Desorption electron Spray Ionisation (DESI) is a mass spectrometric technique applied for analysis of FB1 from maize [73]. Fumonisins continue to be frequently associated as multi-mycotoxin assays in food and other commodities and were detected by LC-MS/MS [74].

The popular immunological method carried out commercially for screening fumonisins contamination is mainly by Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) even though antibodies used here are raised against FB1 they show very low cross reactivity with FB2 and FB3 [75]. Dipstick, Biosensor and Immunoaffinity columns were the other immunological methods that were in practice for rapid detection of total fumonisins by direct fluorometric method [76].

Since the detection of Fusarium species itself is a very critical step, the prediction of its mycotoxigenic level in the isolates found to be more serious, hence the need for accurate and early detection of fumonisin producing F. verticillioides is more important with rapid, sensitive and reliable methods. Therefore, improved and quick methods such as DNA based identification methods and species-specific PCR assay for identifying fumonisin forming Fusarium species from cereals has become important, since fumonisins are now being implicated in diseases and cancer of animals [77,78], Ramana et al. [79], system was based on the Fum1 and Fum13 gene sequences of F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides and was applied to the detection of the fungi in artificially contaminated cornmeal in a multiplex PCR assay.

Between each copy of the 18S-5.8S-28S ribosomal DNA sequence within an intra-chromosomal repeat unit are nontranscribed spacers. The sequence of these segments is entirely free of selective constraint (ITS must continue to fold in such a way that nucleases can cut the transcript at the appropriate points). For this reason, the non-transcribed spacers (NTS), otherwise known as intergenic spacers (IGS) are sensitive markers of evolutionary change, tracking drift more rapidly than the ITS. As with ITS they are thought to be under the constraint of concerted evolution, and so rapid change can only follow disruption of panmixis in a population. In their first study, Collins & Cunningham [80] amplified a range of fragments from the IGS. This makes it impossible to be sure how long the IGS is the longest fragment is 2.62 Kb but it is not clear how the fragments relate to each other, and it is possible that IGS of different lengths exist within the cassette.

Biochemical studies designated fumonisins as a product of polyketide synthase (PKS) gene FUM1 previously which was represented as FUM5 [81]. Gonzalez-Jaen et al. [82], demonstrated that genes Fum1 (=Fum5), Fum6, and Fum8 were only present in F. verticillioides and other Fusarium species asthe principle producers of fumonisins within the G. fujikuroi complex. Sanchez-Rangel et al. [83], reported similar results with a different pair of primers with presence or absence of the Fum1 gene which is the principle ability of a F. verticillioides isolate to produce fumonisin. Fum1 gene with 7.8kb coding region or IGS located between 16S-23S rRNA genes for distinguishing between fumonisn producing and non-producing strains of F. verticillioides was successfully developed by multiplex PCR assay [84,85]. Multiplex PCR based methods was evaluated for potential fumonisin producing Fusarium species from traditional Morongo leafy vegetables in south Africa using a Fum1 gene encoding polyketide synthase for fumonisin B1 production along with EF-1 primer and was a potential method to obtain three fragments of appropriate sizes by multiplex PCR [86].

Baird et al. [87], tested 24 strains of F. verticillioides and other Fusarium species for its fumonisin production with four different sets of synthesized oligonucleotide primers such as Fum1F/ Fum4R, Fum5F/Fum6R, Fum5F/Fum4R/ Fum1F/Fum6R, among which primer Fum5F/Fum6R being a sensitive and accurate detector consistently amplified 419bp fragment from 96% DNA of all the F. verticillioides strains and 83% from F. proliferatum. Multiplex PCR method was developed to simultaneously detect F. verticillioides and F. subglutians in Brazil by developing a primer targeting gaoB gene coding for galactose oxidase and detected DNA from infected maize samples [88]. FB1 and FB2 production by F. verticillioides and its FUM genes Fum1, Fum3, Fum6, Fum7, Fum8, Fum13, Fum14, Fum15, Fum19 expression on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and non-Bt maize during different periods of incubation was studied and all the FUM genes found to be expressed by F. verticillioides in all the tested samples indicating lower expression and weak association of FB1 in few Fum genes of Bt hybrids [89]. Recently a novel gene Fungal Unknown Gene 1 (FUG1) in F. verticillioides was reported through functional genetics which shows the deletion of FUG1 impairs the maize kernel colonization and fumonisin biosynthesis and also increases sensitivity to 2-benzoxazolinone and hydrogen peroxide indicating FUG1 key role in mitigating stress with host defence mechanism [90] [Table 3].

Molecular methods for the detection of fumonisins plays a wide key role since the industries demands for results in a minute which is an impossible request to be followed by conventional methods by taxonomists. Important methods followed for detection of toxigenic fumonisins producing F. verticillioides are polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) [95]. The use of PCR approaches has been already useful in epidemiological analyses [77] and are widely used in fungal taxonomy [87,96] and more recently they have been used for the detection of fungal pathogens in plant tissues [97]. PCR based methodology reported the genetic diversity and detected fumonisin producing F. verticillioides from Philippines using 800bp VERT1/VERT2 and 400bp VERTF-1/VERTF2 primers documenting 38 fumonisin producing F. verticillioides and five more isolates claimed to be F. verticillioides through TEF sequences, morphology and sexual crosses, were negative by Universally Primer-PCR (UP-PCR) [98]. Several other researchers have also employed DNA based techniques for the detection of Fusarium species [81,92,99-102,]. Many numbers of genus specific, species specific and fumonisin specific primers were used to detect F. verticillioides through PCR assays was developed [77,85,95,100-104].

Some conventional qualitative PCR approaches for detection of Fusarium species have been reported [91,105,106]. F. culmorum was specifically detected in cereal samples by nested PCR [107] in a single closed tube with OPT18F/R describing it was approximately 100 times more sensitive than another PCR method. Similarly, many researchers have been conducted for detection of Fusarium solani in soybean roots with single or in combination of primers FSg1/FSg2, FsgEF1/FsgEF2 primers [108], in ocular samples using Fusofor/Fusorev primers [109], F. oxysporum in artificial and natural soil by using WiltNF-1/ WiltNR-1 primers [110], in basil [111] and F. niveum in soil and infected plant tissues using Fn-1/Fn-2 set of primers [112] by nested PCR method. Among the four targeted genes norI, Tri6, Fum13, Otanps; norI found to be stable intermediate that encodes for norsolorinic acid reductase involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis by multiplex PCR [112]. In recent days multiplex PCR assay could be a supplementary strategy to current conventional mycotoxin analytical techniques such as TLC, HPLC and a reliable tool for high throughput monitoring of major mycotoxin producing fungi during processing steps of food and feed commodities [113]. Real-Time PCR is more sensitive and specific for the detection and quantification of toxigenic fungi. The real-time PCR could detect as little as 300fg of genomic DNA It can also identify symptomless infections with higher sensitivity than conventional PCR [114]. However, real time PCR assay is not so cost effective and needs costly equipment as well as reagents. A PCR method was developed by Murillo et al. [115], to detect F. verticillioides from naturally infected maize seeds directly. PCR method found to be important since the killed fungi can also be detected as an advantage. Since a decade Real-time PCR, a new method which is more sensitive and specific for detection and quantification of toxigenic fungi [116]. In a study two new PCR methods have been developed such as nested PCR and multiplex PCR from the F. verticillioides isolates and sensitivity test for the developed kits were carried out directly from the cereals and its plant parts for the early detection of fumonisin producing F. verticillioides [117,118].

Mycotoxicological and pathogenic characterization of fungal plant pathogens can be complemented by fingerprinting. Wide range of pathogenicity in terms of effect on seed germination, seedling development and of symptoms produced on detached leaves, which were not correlated with the different in vitro fumonisin production. Amplified Fragment Polymorphisms Analysis (AFLP) analysis indicated the presence of genetic diversity not only between Italian strains and the American reference but also among the Italian isolates [119]. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) can also reveal genetic variability between different species and within the same species, giving us information about genetic differences which could correspond to different mycotoxicological or pathogenic profiles [120,121]. Visentin et al. [122], described the ITS-RFLP discrimination between F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. Schlacht et al. [123], analyzed the DNA of members of Fusarium species belonging to mating populations A, D, and E, the teleomorphs of F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum and F. subglutinans, respectively. RFLP reports the intraspecific variability in Intergenic spacer regions (IGS) and based on specific sequences of RAPD fragments specific primers were developed for F. verticillioides [84,124]. A total of 33 F. verticillioides strains from different origin and hosts were analyzed for fumonisin production and characterized by PCR-RFLP to detect variations and to discriminate among isolates [92]. Kerengy [125] in their study through RFLP studies reported that groups of fumonisin non - producing strains had less variations than the fumonisin producing group of strains.

RAPD has been reported to be an intense method to identify the genotypic differences using short oligodeoxynucleotides primersamong the fungal species [126]. RAPD was mainly used to correlate taxa based differences among its morphology, physiology, its toxin production and to distinguish fungal species and its pathogenicity variations within the species [127]. RAPD was not sensitive enough to detect fumonisin producing fungi hence, specific primers from known sequences of genes producing fumonisin was investigated and compared DNA based strategies for identification of fumonisin producing and non-producing strains [128,84]. Moeller et al. [124], reported the identification F. verticillioides and F. subglutinans based on sequences of RAPD fragments that were successively applied for the analysis of infected maize kernels. However, although RAPDs have been widely used as diagnostic tools in many laboratories for the identification of Fusarium species [129] they are considered not very reliable because of the lack of reproducibility of the technique. Among 3840 maize kernels tested in southern Brazil 77% were contaminated with Fusarium species in which F. verticillioides was the most prevalent species with 98% infection and approximately 95% of F. verticillioides isolates found to harbor the essential genes for fumonisin biosynthesis (FUM1 and FUM8) also its genetic structure was also investigated by AFLP revealing high genetic variability [130]. To avoid these cumbersome methods faster diagnostic method such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocols have emerged as useful and rapid techniques.

Mycotoxins usually enter the body through ingestion of contaminated foods, but inhalation of toxigenic spores and direct dermal contact are also important routes to enter the body. Cereals and cereal based food products are significant in our food chain. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Worldwide cereal production is of 2534MT in which Indian production is 245.5MT among which 1104MT cereals are consumed as food by Humans and 876 MT in the form of feed for animals which finally in turn will be consumed as meat by humans. The significant risk of contamination of such cereal based foods and feeds by fumonisins receives the most attention as it is a potential carcinogen of global concern. On consumption of such contaminated cereals mainly affects or targets liver, lung and kidney in animals and skin lesions, wounds and lifethreatening cancer to humans. Well-developed methods have been followed for the early and rapid detection of toxigenic fumonisins to monitor the occurrence of these mycotoxins. Only the continued research on understanding the effects and modes of mycotoxin action in various species, have regulations been forthcoming.

We wish to thank Indian Council for Medical Research for providing fund as SRF to carry out the research work on Fusarium verticillioides and its management.

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