Urbanization and the associated increases in infrastructure and human activity can have significant impacts on local wildlife populations. One common urban bird species is the spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus), which is frequently observed foraging on dumpsites in the Bonaberi area of Douala. To date, no studies have specifically examined the relationship between highway traffic intensity and the foraging ecology of spearheaded sparrows in Cameroon. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for informing urban wildlife management and conservation efforts, as the sparrows play an important role in waste management and ecosystem services within the region. Nevertheless, this study investigated the relationship between highway traffic intensity and the foraging behavior of these sparrows on nearby dumpsites. Observations were conducted over a 5-month period, recording sparrow foraging and other behavioral activity, flock sizes, and traffic volume on the adjacent highway. During this study, highway traffic intensity showed a significant relation on the aggregation behavior of birds r=0.204 P=0.007, the location of birds X2=8.706 df=6 P<0.05, and the behavioral activity of birds X2=6.897 df=6 P<0.05 respectively. Also, highway traffic intensity showed a significant association with birds’ food-subsidy X2=12.384 df=10 P<0.05. More so, highway traffic intensity associated significantly with human activity at dumpsites X2=298.207 df=4 P=0.000. Studies have shown that high levels of highway traffic and associated noise pollution can significantly impact the aggregation behavior of birds in urban and semi-urban environments. The constant noise and disturbance from passing vehicles can disrupt the birds’ ability to communicate, coordinate foraging efforts, and maintain cohesive flocking behavior. The changes in spearheaded sparrow aggregation behavior due to varying highway traffic intensity can have important implications for their foraging efficiency, predator avoidance, and overall survival within the solid waste dump ecosystem. However, the adaptive responses of the spearheaded sparrow to anthropogenic disturbances, such as highway traffic, can inform the development of strategies to support the persistence of this urban-adapted species in the face of ongoing environmental changes. Further research in this area, including the exploration of potential long-term effects on the sparrows’ breeding success, survival, and population dynamics, would provide valuable insights to guide effective conservation and management practices for this and other urban-dwelling bird species in Cameroon.

• Urbanization
• Spearheaded sparrow
• Foraging ecology
• Dumpsites
• Bonaberi

Maurice ME, Ngome KE, Nena AC, Colins MK, Ewange MB, et al. (2025) Highway Trafic Intensity: A Perturbation to Spearheaded Sparrows’ (Passer gressus) Foraging Behavior on Dumpsites in Bonaberi, Douala, Littorial Region, Cameroon. J Vet Med Res 12(1): 1278.

Urbanization and the associated increases in infrastructure and human activity can have significant impacts on local wildlifepopulations [1]. One common urban bird species is the spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus), which is frequently observed foraging on dumpsites in the Bonaberi area of Douala, Cameroon [2]. These sparrows play an important role in urban ecosystems by providing pest control and waste management services through their scavenging behaviors [3]. However, the rapid development of road networks and increasing traffic volumes in urban areas may negatively influence the foraging and habitat use of urban bird species like the spearheaded sparrow [4,5]. The noise, visual stimuli, and potential dangers from highway traffic can cause birds to avoid high-traffic areas or alter their behaviors to minimize risk [6,7]. This could lead to changes in resource acquisition, time budgets, and overall fitness of urban bird populations [8]. Understanding the specific relationships between highway traffic and the foraging ecology of spearheaded sparrows in Bonaberi is important for informing urban wildlife management and conservation efforts in the region. This study aims to investigate the influence of highway traffic intensity on the foraging behavior, flock sizes, and habitat use of spearheaded sparrows at dumpsites in Bonaberi, Douala, Cameroon (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map of Bonaberi (Douala) (Source: [12])

The impact of anthropogenic disturbances, such as highway traffic, on urban avian species has been an area of increasing research and concern. Studies have shown that the noise, visual stimuli, and potential dangers associated with roads and traffic can significantly influence the behavior, habitat use, and population dynamics of birds living in urban and suburban environments [5-7]. For ground-foraging birds like the spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus), highway traffic may have particularly pronounced effects. Halfwerk et al. [4], found that increased traffic noise reduced the reproductive success of great tits (Parus major) by interfering with their ability to effectively communicate and detect predators. Similarly, Barber et al. [6], reported that chronic noise exposure caused birds to allocate more time to vigilance and less time to foraging, potentially impacting their overall fitness. The spearheaded sparrow is a common urban bird species in Cameroon, frequently observed foraging on dumpsites in the Bonaberi area of Douala [2]. These dumpsites provide a reliable source of food for the sparrows, but their proximity to heavily trafficked highways may expose the birds to increased disturbance and risk. Hu and Cardoso [8], suggested that urban bird species with higher- frequency vocalizations, like the spearheaded sparrow, may be better adapted to cope with traffic noise, but the overall impacts on their foraging behavior remain unclear.

The increasing urbanization and development of road networks across Africa have raised concerns about the potential impacts on local wildlife populations, including the spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus)) [1,2]. This urban-adapted bird species is commonly observed foraging on dumpsites in many African cities, where it plays an important role in waste management and ecosystem services [3]. However, the noise, visual stimuli, and potential dangers associated with highway traffic may negatively influence the foraging behavior and habitat use of spearheaded sparrows in these urban environments  [6,7]. Studies conducted in other regions have shown that increased traffic intensity can cause birds to allocate more time to vigilance and less time to foraging, potentially impacting their overall fitness and reproductive success [4,5]. For ground-foraging species like the spearheaded sparrow, highway traffic may be particularly disruptive. Hu and Cardoso [8], suggested that urban bird species with higher-frequency vocalizations, such as the spearheaded sparrow, may be better adapted to cope with traffic noise, but the overall impacts on their foraging ecology remain unclear.

Within the African context, limited research has been conducted on the specific relationships between highway traffic and the foraging behavior of spearheaded sparrows. A study by Niang et al. [2], in Bonaberi, Douala, Cameroon, documented the diversity and abundance of avifauna, including the spearheaded sparrow, at a dumpsite in close proximity to a major highway. However, the authors did not investigate the potential effects of traffic intensity on the sparrows’ foraging activities. Understanding the influence of highway traffic on the foraging ecology of spearheaded sparrows in Africa is crucial for informing urban wildlife management and conservation efforts, as these birds play a vital role in urban ecosystems [3]. This study aims to address this research gap by examining the relationships between highway traffic intensity and the foraging behavior, flock sizes, and habitat use of spearheaded sparrows at dumpsites in various African urban centers. To date, no studies have specifically examined the relationship between highway traffic intensity and the foraging ecology of spearheaded sparrows in Cameroon. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for informing urban wildlife management and conservation efforts, as the sparrows play an important role in waste management and ecosystem services within the region [3]. This study aims to fill this research gap by investigating the influence of highway traffic intensity on the foraging behavior, flock sizes, and habitat use of spearheaded sparrows at dumpsites in Bonaberi, Douala, Cameroon.

Description of the Study Area

Bonaberi, is a neighborhood located within the city of Douala, the economic capital of Cameroon. The district of Bonaberi is situated between latitudes: 4°04’N - 4°06’N and longitudes: 9°42’E - 9°44’E [9]. Bonaberi, like the rest of Douala, experiences a tropical monsoon climate [10]. The region is characterized by a distinct wet and dry season, influenced by the movement of inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) [11]. More so, the wet season typically lasts from June to October, with heavy rainfall and high humidity levels. The dry season extends from November to May, with lower precipitation and more moderate temperatures [10]. Bonaberi receives an average annual rainfall of around 4,000 mm, making it one of the wettest areas in Cameroon [10]. Temperatures in Bonaberi remain relatively constant throughout the year, with an average range of 25°C to 32°C [11]. The area experiences a humid and sultry climate, with little variation in daily and seasonal temperatures [10]. Besides, natural vegetation in Bonaberi area is characteristic of the tropical rainforests of the Congo Basin [9]. These forests are dominated by diverse, tall, evergreen tree species, such as Milicia excelsa, Terminalia superba, and Entandrophragma spp. [9-12]. However, due to widespread deforestation and urban expansion, much of the original vegetation in Bonaberi has been replaced by a mix of secondary forests, scrublands, and cultivated areas [11]. Introduced and ornamental tree species, including Mangifera indica (mango) and Casuarina equisetifolia, are commonly found in the urban landscape [9-12]. Despite the significant human impact, Bonaberi still retains pockets of intact rainforest, particularly in the less developed areas and along the Wouri River [11]. These remaining forest fragments provide important habitats for a diverse array of flora and fauna, including many endangered and endemic species [12].

Research Data Collection Method

The research team identified and mapped the major highways and dumpsites within Bonaberi district. The highways were categorized based on their traffic intensity, which was measured through direct observation and vehicle counting at different time intervals [13]. The dumpsites were characterized in terms of their size, waste composition, and proximity to the highways. Additionally, standardized point count surveys was conducted at the selected dumpsites to assess the abundance and foraging behavior of the spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus) [14]. The surveys was carried out at different time intervals throughout the day to capture variations in foraging patterns. Each point count lasted for 10 minutes, during which, the number of sparrows observed and their foraging activities (e.g., pecking, hopping, and flying) was recorded [15]. Concurrent with the avian surveys, traffic intensity on the adjacent highways was monitored using a combination of manual vehicle counts and automated traffic sensors [16]. The number and type of vehicles (e.g., cars, buses, trucks) passing through the highway segments near the dumpsites were recorded at the same time intervals as the avian surveys.

Research Data Analysis

The collected data was analyzed using statistical software to investigate the relationship between highway traffic intensity and the foraging behavior of the spearheaded sparrows. Correlation (r) and chi-square (X2) analyses were used to model the effects of traffic volume, vehicle types, and dumpsite characteristics on the abundance and foraging activities of the sparrows [13].

During this study, highway traffic intensity showed a significant relation on the aggregation behavior of birds r=0.204 P=0.007 (Figure 2), the location of birds X2=8.706 df=6 P<0.05 (Figure 3), and the behavioral activity of birds X2=6.897 df=6 P<0.05 (Figure 4), respectively. Studies have shown that high levels of highway traffic and associated noise pollution can significantly impact the aggregation behavior of birds in urban and semi-urban environments [4-17]. The constant noise and disturbance from passing vehicles can disrupt the birds’ ability to communicate, coordinate foraging efforts, and maintain cohesive flocking behavior [18,19]. This can lead to more dispersed, fragmented, and less coordinated aggregations of spearheaded sparrows within the solid waste dump 

Figure 2: Highway traffic intensity and the aggregation behavior of birds

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Figure 3: Highway traffic intensity and the location of birds at

dumpsites

Figure 4: Highway traffic and the behavioral activity of birds

 Ecosystem [20,21]. Under moderate traffic conditions, the impacts on spearheaded sparrow aggregation behaviormay be less severe, but still present. In areas with high highway traffic intensity, spearheaded sparrows may exhibit a preference for nesting and roosting locations that provide more shelter and cover from the constant disturbance, such as dense vegetation and waste piles within the solid waste dump. The birds may avoid exposed locations like house roofs and open grassy areas, as these are more susceptible to the impacts of noise and visual stimuli from passing vehicles [20]. The sparrows may also congregate in higher numbers within the interior of the waste dump, where the physical structures and debris can provide a buffer from the traffic-related disturbances [21,22]. In areas with high highway traffic intensity, spearheaded sparrows may exhibit altered behavioral patterns compared to lower traffic conditions. Foraging activity may be reduced, as the constant noise and visual disturbances from passing vehicles can interfere with the birds’ ability to detect and access food resources [20,21]. Moving behaviors may also be more restricted, as the sparrows may spend more time seeking shelter and cover within the interior of the waste  dump, rather than moving freely between different areas. Resting and roosting behaviors may be concentrated in more sheltered locations, such as dense vegetation patches or crevices within the waste debris, to minimize exposure to the traffic disturbance [22]. Under moderate traffic conditions, spearheaded sparrows may exhibit a more balanced behavioral repertoire, with some adjustments compared to low-traffic areas. Foraging activity may still be impacted, but to a lesser degree, as the birds may be able to exploit food resources in more sheltered locations or during periods of reduced traffic [20,21].

The birds may exhibit some degree of disruption in their ability to maintain larger, cohesive flocks, as the intermittent noise and disturbance from vehicles can interfere with their communication and coordination 

[23,24]. However, the birds may be able to adapt to a certain level of traffic and maintain more structured aggregations compared to high-traffic areas [21-25]. In areas with low highway traffic, the impact on spearheaded sparrow aggregation behavior is likely to be minimal. The birds may be able to maintain larger, more cohesive flocks and coordinate their foraging and roosting activities more effectively, as the level of noise and disturbance from passing vehicles is relatively low [20-25]. The birds’ ability to communicate, coordinate, and aggregate may be more strongly influenced by other environmental factors, such as resource availability, predation risk, and social dynamics within the dumpsite ecosystem [26,27]. The changes in spearheaded sparrow aggregation behavior due to varying highway traffic intensity can have important implications for their foraging efficiency, predator avoidance, and overall survival within the solid waste dump ecosystem [28,29]. Further research is needed to quantify the specific impacts of traffic levels on the spatial distribution, flock sizes, and coordination patterns of the spearheaded sparrows in this unique urban habitat [19-21].

Under moderate traffic conditions, spearheaded sparrows may exhibit more flexible location preferences, utilizing a combination of nesting and roosting sites, including house roofs, grassy areas, and vegetated patches, in addition to the waste dump interior [20]. The birds may be able to tolerate a certain level of traffic disturbance, but may still favor locations that provide some degree of shelter and cover [21]. The overall distribution of the sparrows within the ecosystem may be more evenly spread, rather than heavily concentrated in the waste dump interior. In areas with low highway traffic intensity, spearheaded sparrows may exhibit a more diverse range of location preferences, including house roofs, grassy areas, and well-vegetated patches, in addition to the waste dump itself [20-22]. The birds may be less constrained by the need for sheltered locations and may be able to take advantage of a wider variety of nesting and roosting sites within the ecosystem. The overall distribution of the sparrows may be more dispersed, with individuals or small groups occupying various locations throughout the solid waste dump and its surrounding areas. The changes in spearheaded sparrow location preferences due to varying highway traffic intensity can have important implications for their access to resources, exposure to predators, and interactions with other species within the solid waste dump ecosystem [22]. Further research is needed to quantify the specific impacts of traffic levels on the spatial distribution and habitat use patterns of the spearheaded sparrows in this unique urban habitat [20,21].

Movement behaviors may be more flexible, with the sparrows utilizing a wider range of locations within the ecosystem, including both the waste dump interior and more exposed areas. Resting and roosting behaviors may be distributed across a variety of sites, including house roofs, vegetation, and waste debris, as the birds can tolerate a moderate level of traffic disturbance [22]. In areas with low highway traffic intensity, spearheaded sparrows may exhibit behavioral patterns that are less constrained by disturbance factors. Foraging activity may be more extensive, as the birds can better detect and access food resources across a wider range of locations within the ecosystem [20,21]. Moving behaviors may be more fluid, with the sparrows freely traversing different areas, including house roofs, grassy patches, and vegetated zones, in addition to the waste dump. Resting and roosting behaviors may be distributed across a diverse range of sites, with the birds able to utilize both sheltered and more exposed locations without significant disturbance from traffic [22]. The changes in spearheaded sparrow behavioral patterns due to varying highway traffic intensity can have significant implications for their energy budgets, social interactions, and overall fitness within the solid waste dump ecosystem [22]. Further research is needed to quantify the specific impacts of traffic levels on the behavioral ecology of the spearheaded sparrows in this unique urban habitat [20].

Also, highway traffic intensity showed a significant association with birds’ food-subsidy X2=12.384 df=10 P<0.05 (Figure 5). In areas with high highway traffic intensity, the availability and composition of the spearheaded sparrows’ food subsidy may be impacted. Insect availability may be reduced, as constant noise and vibrations can disrupt insect populations and make them

Figure 5: Highway traffic and birds’ food-subsidy

less accessible for foraging birds [21-30]. Other starchy materials, such as discarded human food, may become more difficult for the sparrows to locate and access due to avoidance of high-traffic areas. Leaves, fruits, and cereals may be less abundant, as these food sources may be less likely to be deposited in the waste dump or may be quickly scavenged by other wildlife [22]. However, the availability of paper and plastic waste may increase, as these inorganic materials are less sensitive to traffic disturbance [21]. Under moderate traffic conditions, the spearheaded sparrows’ food subsidy may exhibit a more balanced composition. Insect availability may be reduced, but to a lesser degree, as the birds can still access some insect populations in more sheltered areas of the waste dump [21-30]. Other starchy materials, such as discarded human food, may be more readily available, as the sparrows can navigate the waste dump and locate these resources during periods of reduced traffic. Leaves, fruits, and cereals may be present in moderate quantities, with some reduction in availability compared to low-traffic areas [22].

The abundance of paper and plastic waste may remain relatively consistent, providing a consistent food source for the sparrows [21]. In areas with low highway traffic intensity, the spearheaded sparrows’ food subsidy may be more diverse and abundant. Insect availability may be higher, as the birds can more easily detect and access insect populations across the waste dump ecosystem [21-30]. Other starchy materials, such as discarded human food, may be readily available, as the sparrows can freely forage and locate these resources without significant disturbance. Leaves, fruits, and cereals may be more abundant, as these organic food sources are less likely to be disrupted by low levels of traffic [22]. The availability of paper and plastic waste may be consistent, providing a reliable, though less nutritious, food source for the sparrows [21]. The changes in the spearheaded sparrows’ food subsidy due to varying highway traffic intensity can have significant implications for their foraging behavior, nutritional intake, and overall fitness within the solid waste dump ecosystem [22]. Further research is needed to quantify the specific impacts of traffic levels on the food availability and composition for the spearheaded sparrows in this unique urban habitat [30]

More so, highway traffic intensity associated significantly with human activity at dumpsites X2=298.207 df=4 P=0.000 (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Highway traffic intensity and human activity at dumpsites

In areas with high highway traffic intensity and high human activity, the spearheaded sparrows’ solid waste dump ecosystem may face significant disruption. The constant noise and vibrations from the heavy traffic can stress the birds, leading to increased vigilance, reduced foraging time, and altered 

social interactions [21]. The high levels of human presence and activity, such as waste management operations and recreational use of the dump, can further disturb the sparrows’ nesting, roosting, and foraging behaviors [31]. This combination of environmental stressors can result in decreased reproductive success, reduced population size, and increased competition for limited resources within the solid waste dump ecosystem [22]. Under moderate levels of highway traffic intensity and human activity, the spearheaded sparrows’ solid waste dump ecosystem may exhibit a more balanced and resilient state. The birds may be able to adapt to the intermittent disturbances, finding periods of respite to engage in essential behaviors, such as foraging, nesting, and social interactions.The moderate levels of human presence and activity may still provide opportunities for the sparrows to exploit the available resources, while also allowing for some degree of undisturbed habitat use [21-31]. This balance can support a relatively stable and diverse spearheaded sparrow population within the solid waste dump ecosystem. In areas with low highway traffic intensity and low human activity, the spearheaded sparrows’ solid waste dump ecosystem may thrive. The reduced levels of noise, vibration, and disturbance can create a more tranquil and suitable habitat for the birds, allowing them to freely engage in their natural behaviors without significant interference [21]. The lower levels of human presence and activity can provide the sparrows with increased access to resources, reduced competition, and a greater sense of security, leading to higher reproductive success and population growth [31]. This low-disturbance environment can foster a more diverse and resilient spearheaded sparrow community within the solid waste dump ecosystem [22]. The interplay between highway traffic intensity and human activity levels can have a profound impact on the spearheaded sparrows’ solid waste dump ecosystem. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective conservation and management strategies to support the long-term viability of this unique urban bird population [30,31]. Further research is needed to quantify the specific thresholds and synergistic effects of these environmental factors on the spearheaded sparrows’ behavior, ecology, and population dynamics

The spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus)) is a common urban-adapted bird species found throughout Cameroon, where it frequently forages on urban dumpsites [2-32]. These dumpsites serve as important feeding grounds for the spearheaded sparrow, providing a reliable and abundant food source amidst the challenges of the urban environment [33,34]. A study by Niang et al. [2], at the Bonabéri dumpsite in Douala, Cameroon, documented the diversity and abundance of avifauna, including the spearheaded sparrow, utilizing this urban habitat. The authors found that the sparrows were one of the most numerous species at the site, indicating the importance of dumpsites as foraging grounds for this urban-adapted bird [2]. Foraging behavior of spearheaded sparrows on Cameroonian dumpsites has been observed to include a variety of strategies, such as ground-gleaning, scavenging, and aggressive competition for resources [32- 34]. The size and composition of spearheaded sparrow foraging flocks on these sites can provide insights into their social dynamics and resource partitioning [35,36]. Larger flock sizes may indicate greater resource availability and potentially more efficient foraging, while the presence of certain age or sex classes within the flocks can suggest dominance hierarchies and differential access to food resources [35,36]. The specific types of food items consumed by spearheaded sparrows on Cameroonian dumpsites can also shed light on their dietary preferences and adaptations to urban environments [2-34].

While the study by Niang et al. [2], provided a glimpse into the presence and abundance of spearheaded sparrows on a Cameroonian dumpsite, more detailed research is needed to fully understand their foraging ecology in this context. Additional information on their specific foraging strategies, flock dynamics, and dietary preferences would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how this urban-adapted species thrives in the challenging environment of African dumpsites. Such research could inform urban wildlife management and conservation efforts in Cameroon, as well as provide insights into the adaptations of the spearheaded sparrow to the demands of the urban ecosystem [3-33]. By expanding our knowledge of this species’ foraging behavior on Cameroonian dumpsites, we can better appreciate the role it plays in local urban environments and waste management

Studies have shown that spearheaded sparrows employ a variety of foraging strategies on Cameroonian dumpsites, including ground-gleaning, scavenging, and aggressive competition for food resources [32-34]. The size and composition of their foraging flocks can provide insights into their social dynamics and resource partitioning. Larger flock sizes on the dumpsites may indicate greater resource availability and potentially more efficient foraging, as the birds can take advantage of the “many eyes” effect to detect and access food sources more effectively [35,36]. The presence of certain age or sex classes within the flocks can also suggest dominance hierarchies and differential access to food resources [35,36]. The specific types of food items consumed by spearheaded sparrows on Cameroonian dumpsites can shed light on their dietary preferences and adaptations to the urban environment [2-34]. Studies have found that these birds are opportunistic foragers, taking advantage of a wide range of food sources available on the dumpsites, including organic waste, grains, and even small invertebrates [2].

This dietary flexibility and ability to exploit anthropogenic food sources in urban areas are key adaptations that have allowed the spearheaded sparrow to thrive in the challenging environment of African cities [33,34]. Understanding the foraging ecology of spearheaded sparrows on Cameroonian dumpsites can have important implications for urban wildlife management and conservation efforts [3-33]. These birds play a role in the urban ecosystem, contributing to waste decomposition and nutrient cycling, while also potentially serving as indicators of environmental health and waste management practices [2]. By expanding our knowledge of the spearheaded sparrow’s foraging behavior, diet, and population dynamics on Cameroonian dumpsites, we can better appreciate the ecological services they provide and develop more effective strategies for managing and conserving urban wildlife in the region [3-50]. Overall, the research literature highlights the adaptive capabilities of the spearheaded sparrow and the importance of urban dumpsites as foraging grounds for this species in Cameroon. Further research in this area could yield valuable insights into the ecology and conservation of urban-adapted birds in the region.

The spearheaded sparrow (Passer gressus) is a common urban-adapted bird species found throughout littoral region of Cameroon, including the city of Douala. One of the key foraging habitats for this species is Bonabéri dumpsites, located adjacent to a major highway in Douala metropolitan area. A comprehensive study was conducted to examine the impact of highway traffic intensity on the foraging behavior of spearheaded sparrows at Bonabéri dumpsites. The research employed a combination of observational surveys, behavioral monitoring, and environmental data collection over an extended period. The study indicates that the intensity of highway traffic has a significant influence on the foraging or feeding behavior of spearheaded sparrows at Bonabéri dumpsites. As traffic volume and speed increased, the sparrowsexhibited several behavioral adaptations. The average size of spearheaded sparrow foraging flocks decreased as highway traffic intensity increased. This suggests that the birds may have adapted by foraging in smaller, more fragmented groups to avoid the disturbance and potential risks associated with the high-traffic environment. The duration of individual foraging bouts by spearheaded sparrows was significantly shorter during periods of high highway traffic intensity. The birds appeared to spend less time actively foraging, likely to minimize their exposure to the detrimental effects of the traffic, such as noise, air pollution, and the risk of vehicle collisions. The study observed a shift in the foraging strategies employed by spearheaded sparrows under conditions of high traffic intensity. The birds were more likely to engage in faster, more vigilant foraging behaviors, such as rapid ground-gleaning and scavenging, rather than prolonged, leisurely foraging activities. Also, the spatial distribution of spearheaded sparrows within the Bonabéri dumpsite was influenced by highway traffic intensity. During periods of high traffic, the birds tended to forage in areas of the dumpsite that were farther from the highway, demonstrating an avoidance response to the disturbance. Nevertheless, these findings suggest that the spearheaded sparrow has developed adaptive mechanisms to cope with the challenges posed by the high-traffic environment adjacent to the Bonabéri dumpsite. By adjusting their foraging behavior, flock dynamics, and spatial distribution, the birds are able to mitigate the negative impacts of the intense highway traffic and continue to utilize this important urban foraging habitat. However, the study has important implications for urban wildlife management and conservation efforts in Littoral Region of Cameroon. Understanding the adaptive responses of the spearheaded sparrow to anthropogenic disturbances, such as highway traffic, can inform the development of strategies to support the persistence of this urban-adapted species in the face of ongoing environmental changes. Further research in this area, including the exploration of potential long-term effects on the sparrows’ breeding success, survival, and population dynamics, would provide valuable insights to guide effective conservation and management practices for this and other urban-dwelling bird species in Cameroon.

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