Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus spp, frequently contaminate staple foods and pose health risks to humans and animals. In Cameroon, street foods like kilishi, a dried meat snack, are prone to aflatoxin contamination due to poor food safety practices and favourable environmental conditions. This study evaluates the levels of aflatoxin B1 contamination in kilishi and determined the effectiveness of lemon juice treatment in the detoxification of aflatoxin B1. Kilishi producers and consumers in Yaoundé were surveyed. Kilishi samples were bought from some market and portions treated with lemon juice and analyzed using a direct competitive aflatoxin B1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kit. Most study participants (74.05%), were aware of aflatoxin contamination in food (Kilishi). The major steps involved in processing kilishi in Yaoundé were identified to include trimming and slicing meat, weighing and drying in sunlight (24 hours), preparing infusion, infusing defatted groundnut and spice on meat (20 minutes), and weighing and drying infused meat in sunlight (24 hours). The mean levels of aflatoxins B1 detected in the kilishi samples without treatment revealed mean (range; 53.85% frequency) aflatoxins B1 contamination levels of 16.31 (range:

• Kilishi

• Aflatoxin

• Mycotoxin

• Lemon juice

• Dietary exposure

Marie-Colette AK, Moh LG, Njitoyap HPN, Djomptchouang HT, Ambadi WI, et al. (2025) Detoxifying Aflatoxin B1 in Kilishi: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Lemon Juice Treatment in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Ann Food Process Preserv 8(1): 1040.

ELISA: Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; LOD: Limit of Detection

Kilishi, a dried meat snack, is a tropical intermediate moisture meat product prepared from beef slices, infused in a slurry of defatted groundnut paste and spices, and sundried. Kilishi is often prepared from red meat such as beef, mutton, or goat meat that is dried (3-5 mm thickness), salted, and spices added [1]. It is a traditionally processed, sun-dry, roasted, ready-to-eat meat product. It is a version of jerky, a dry-cured form of meat made from deboned cow, sheep, or goat meat. Kilishi is popular, especially in Northern Cameroon, Nigeria, Chad, Niger Republic, and other countries in the Sahelian region of Africa [2]. It also has been an important export commodity to most Eastern world countries, such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, where it is also widely consumed [3]. Kilishi, mostly from beef, is considered a highly desirable and favourable snack in Cameroon probably because of its palatability. It is often used as house snack refreshment, or delicacy and shared during special celebrations or ceremonies without bothering of the safety status. However, this snack meat is prone to microbial and chemical contaminants due to exposure to microbial load, poor processing and packaging, poor handling and storage conditions, and protracted length of storage before being sold [4]. One of the main ingredients of kilishi is ground nut, which is easily contaminated with mycotoxins (aflatoxins).

Mycotoxins are a teratogen and potent mutagen presenting health risks to both human and animal populations [5]. Food-borne mycotoxins are likely to be of greatest significance in Africa and other tropical developing countries, as well as fumonisins and aflatoxins [6]. Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of Aspergillus flavus Link and A. parasiticus speare in favourable conditions such as temperature (25-35°C), water activities (0.84-0.9) and pH (4-6) [7]. Aflatoxins have also been associated with the increasing incidence of human gastrointestinal and hepatic neoplasms in Africa, the Philippines, and China particularly the aflatoxin B1 strain [8]. Aflatoxins are acutely toxic, immunosuppressive mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic compounds targeting mainly the liver for toxicity and carcinogenicity [9]. It is also associated with several other health conditions including jaundice, decreased levels of serum vitamins A and E, liver, cancers, and even death [10,11], four major types of aflatoxins ( AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 and AFG2 ) exist among at least 18 structurally related mycotoxins [12]. Aflatoxins designated by B1 and B2 show strong blue fluorescence under UV light, whereas the G1 and G2 forms show greenish-yellow fluorescence. Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxins B1 and B2. Other toxic compounds A flavus produces are cyclopionic acid, kojic acid, nitoproprionic acid, aspenoxin, aflam, and aspergeillic acid. A parasiticus produces aflatoxin G1 and G2 in addition to B1 and B2, but not cyclopionic acid [13].

Aflatoxin is known to contaminate several food commodities, especially ground nuts. Ground nuts become contaminated by aflatoxins before harvest or post-harvest conditions [14]. However, aflatoxin contamination of meat products, e.g. kilishi, may be through spices and contaminated raw materials (processing), the presence of aflatoxin-producing mould on the surface of meat products, or the carry-over effect from animals exposed to contaminated feed [15].

Recent research in developing and improving aflatoxin control technology focuses on prevention and good storage and manufacturing practices that can be applied in the feed and food chain to reduce aflatoxin exposure. Still, these efforts are not always satisfactory to ensure food safety [16]. Therefore, recent research activities seem to have shifted toward reducing the aflatoxin content already present in feeds and foods, and several biological, physical, and chemical methods have been tested and evaluated to mitigate aflatoxin. Biological detoxification methods rely on specific microorganisms, which bind and or transform aflatoxin into less toxic compounds and are also advantageous in terms of the food’s sensory and nutritional values and represent a safer option to choose when considering food safety aspects [17]. However, due to the inherent nature of these methods, they typically cannot be applied to a wide spectrum of commodities. Physical and chemical methods can also be applied safely and with high efficiency, and they are generally much faster than the biological methods, which makes them much more acceptable to potential consumers [18].

Lemon exerts its antifungal effects by creating an acidic environment unfavourable for fungal growth [19]. The low pH of lemon juice alters the pH balance of the external environment, disrupting the physiological processes essential for fungal survival and proliferation. Additionally, the citric acid in lemon exhibits fungicidal properties by destabilising fungal cell membranes, leading to leakage of cellular contents and eventual cell death. This dual action of acidity and citric acid contributes to lemon’s ability to inhibit the growth of a wide range of fungi, including pathogenic species such as Candida albicans, Aspergillus spp., and dermatophytes responsible for various fungal infections in humans [20]. However, there has been no study on the effect of acid (e.g. lemon) treatment on reducing aflatoxins in kilishi. Therefore, this study assessed the levels of Aflatoxin B1 contamination in Kilishi and the effectiveness of lemon juice treatment in detoxifying aflatoxin B1 in Kilishi (Dried Beef Jerky) sold on the streets of Yaoundé, Cameroon.

The study location

This study was carried out in Yaoundé, Cameroon, due to its representative urban population and availability of kilishi, a popular dried meat snack. Yaoundé is the capital city of Cameroon, located in the central region (3.85 oN 11.52 oE), with a tropical savanna climate and a population of approximately 2.5 million people (Institute National de la Statistique, 2020). Yaounde, like Douala, is amongst the top 2 cosmopolitan cities with many people depending/ liking on street foods such as “puff-puff and beans” and “kilishi” either as daily income source or as fast food. Kilishi (Figure 1),

Figure 1: Kilishi, a popular dried meat snack (taken during sampling)

samples were collected from local markets and street vendors in Yaounde’s urban and peri-urban areas, including Briquetterie, Obili, Mokolo, Biyem-Assi, and Acacia neighbourhoods (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Map displaying the markets in Yaoundé

Survey

The survey was carried out by administering structured-ended questionnaire to kilishi producers, vendors, and consumers face-to-face either on the street and beer parlours, or at the processing sites/households (specifically in Briquetterie, Obili, Mokolo, Biyemassi, and Acacia neighbourhoods - Figure 2) in Yaoundé, Cameroon. The structured-ended questionnaires were pretested before being administered to participants. For the pre-test, after the questionnaire was prepared, it was administered to 15 pupils in the primary (class 5-6) and to 10 market women (“buyam-sellam”) at randomly withing the studied localities in Yaounde, to ensure the language was simple and content clear and unambiguous. Although we assumed a score of 50% and below meant adjust the questionnaire and repeat the process with different randomly selected subpopulations; 50-74% meant adjust the questionnaire accordingly; and 75% and above implies easy and understandable questionnaires and so could be validated. The randomly selected 25 individuals scored 80%, and the questionnaire was administered as designed. The questionnaires focused on participants’ socio-demography (producers, vendors, and consumers), kilishi processing procedures, and Knowledge and awareness of aflatoxin contamination in foods/snacks such as kilishi. Prospective participants included producers and consumers of kilishi, particularly frequent consumers aged 18–60 years, producers who had produced kilishi for at least two years and could provide self-consent to participate in the study. Children and individuals unable to self-consent were excluded. All recruited participants were healthy individuals who were not hospitalized or known to take medications for any medical purposes.

Participants

A total of 120 participants were interviewed across the kilishi vendors either on the street or at the processing sites/households or markets of the study sites. 108 valid participant data were included in the final analysis. Invalid participants were removed based on the exclusion criteria.

Sampling

This cross-sectional study collected kilishi samples from kilishi vendors either on the street or at the processing sites/households or markets (specifically in Briquetterie, Obili, Mokolo, Biyemassi, and Acacia neighbourhoods) in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Twenty-six (26) Kilishi samples were randomly bought from vendors either on the street or at the processing sites/households or markets. 500 g of each were carefully weighed and placed into zip-locked bags and transported immediately to the Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Yaoundé 1, Cameroon, where they were kept in a freezer at 4oC until analysed for the presence of aflatoxin B1.

Processing

To ensure a comprehensive and standardized analysis of the kilishi samples, each market-purchased sample underwent a meticulous preparation process before laboratory analysis. Initially, each kilishi sample was carefully pieced using a sterilized kitchen knife to ensure uniformity and consistency. The sample was thoroughly mixed by continuously shaking the container holding the kilishi for three minutes using a manual shaking technique. This step was critical to homogenize the sample and minimize any potential variability arising from uneven distribution of components within the kilishi. Following homogenization, each sample was divided into two equal portions (Portion A and Portion B) using a systematic sampling approach. Portion A was obtained by collecting samples from the container’s top, bottom, sides, and middle to ensure representativeness. These samples were then milled or ground using a high-speed kitchen blender (Silver Crest, Germany) to achieve a fine, uniform powder. The milled samples were immediately transferred to labelled zip-locked bags and stored under controlled conditions until further analysis.

From Portion B, seven samples were randomly selected using a randomized number generator to ensure unbiased representation. These selected samples were treated with 50 mL of freshly pressed lemon juice to simulate common consumer practices and assess the impact of such treatments on kilishi quality. The lemon juice was prepared by cutting a whole lemon into four equal slices, after which the juice was manually squeezed into a sterile 50 mL Falcon tube. This method mirrored traditional practices observed among kilishi consumers, ensuring ecological validity. Participants wore disposable gloves during the juice extraction process to maintain hygiene and consistency. The lemon juice was immediately applied to the selected samples by evenly sprinkling it over the surface, followed by gentle mixing to ensure uniform distribution. After treatment, each sample was blended using the same high-speed kitchen blender (Silver Crest, Germany) to achieve a homogeneous mixture. The treated samples were also transferred to labelled zip-locked bags and stored under identical conditions as the untreated samples until analysis. This dual approach allowed for a comparative evaluation of kilishi samples under both untreated and lemon juice-treated conditions, providing insights into the effects of common post-purchase handling practices on kilishi quality and composition.

Aflatoxin B1 determination

Chemical and reagents: Chemicals, reagents, and certified standards of mycotoxins were all obtained from PriboLab (Qingdao, China) delivered directly with the ELISA kit. All the grade solutions were stored following the manufacturer’s recommendations and tempered to ambient temperature before use.

Sample processing: Five (5) grams of each ground sample (kilishi) was then suspended in 25 mL of a sample extraction solution (70% Methanol–distilled water 8:2 v/v) [21]. Thereafter, the mixture was vortex-extracted for 5 minutes. Subsequently, 5 mL of the resulting extract was carefully transferred into a 15 mL centrifuge tube. To this, 10 mL of trichloromethane is added, and the solution is vortexed for 1 minute to ensure thorough mixing. After this step, centrifugation is performed at 4000 rpm for 5 minutes, separating layers. The lower trichloromethane layer, containing the desired components, was then extracted and transferred to a new centrifuge tube, where it was dried at 50°C under a stream of nitrogen.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for aflatoxin analysis: The competitive ELISA was performed according to manufacturer instructions. Briefly, 2 mL of sample extraction solution was added to the dried extract. The mixture was then vortexed for 2 minutes to achieve homogeneity. Subsequently, a 200 µL of the filtrate/ supernatant is diluted with 300 µL of sample diluent (Solution A) and vortexed to ensure proper mixing. For the subsequent assay steps, 50 µL of either standard or prepared samples are added in duplicate to the corresponding wells of a microtiter plate. This was followed by adding 50 µL of Horseradish peroxidase antibody Conjugate to each well. The plate was covered with plastic foil and gently rocked to mix the contents before being incubated for 20 minutes at room temperature in the dark. After incubation, the wells are washed multiple times with 1× washing buffer and tapped dry with absorbent paper towels. Subsequently, 150µL of Substrate Solution (Tetramethylbenzidine) is added to each well, gently mixed, and incubated again at room temperature for 10 minutes in the dark. Finally, the reaction was stopped by adding 50 µL/well of stop solution (H2 SO4 2M), and the absorbance of each well was measured at 450nm wavelength using a microplate reader, with the results recorded for analysis.

ELISA Method Validation for Aflatoxin Analysis

The ELISA method for aflatoxin analysis was validated to ensure its accuracy, precision, and reliability in accordance with established analytical guidelines. Key validation parameters assessed included sensitivity (limit of detection) an specificity, precision (repeatability), recovery (accuracy), and linearity. Sensitivity was determined by constructing a standard curve from serial dilutions of aflatoxin standards, with the limit of detection (LOD) defined as the lowest concentration producing an absorbance value significantly higher than the blank (mean blank + 3 standard deviations). The effective standard range was based on manufacturer specifications, and the LOD corresponded to the lowest detectable concentration above background noise. Specificity was assessed by comparing results from blank (aflatoxin-free) matrices with those spiked with known concentrations of aflatoxins.

Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis for the study involved using simple descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentages, mean values, and standard deviations, to summarize and characterize the data collected from participants. These descriptive statistics provided insights into the central tendencies, variability, and distribution of variables under investigation, allowing for a clear understanding of the baseline characteristics and patterns within the dataset. The questionnaire used demonstrated reliability and convergent validity and takes about 20 min to complete with Cronbach’s α coefficient, resulting in a value of 0.90, indicating strong internal consistency and reliability. All statistical analyses were conducted using The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 (IBM Corp., Chicago, USA), a widely recognized and robust software tool for quantitative data analysis. SPSS was utilized to perform the necessary computations and generate reliable results, ensuring the findings were accurate and interpretable. The combination of descriptive statistics and inferential methods (such as p-value calculations) allowed for a comprehensive evaluation of the data, supporting the study’s objectives and hypotheses.

Results

Socio-demographic Characteristics: Table 1 presents the socio-demographic factors of the participants (N=108; 32 males and 76 females) in this study. Eighty (74.07%) of the participants were 18-30 years old, most of whom (72 out of 108 participants) were not married. Participants were from diversified occupations, with students and researchers being the majority (33.33%). The steps in processing kilishi in Yaoundé were also identified (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Flow chart of simulated kilishi preparation

Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristic

Knowledge and awareness of aflatoxin contamination in foods/snacks: Seventy-four percent (74.05%; 80/108) of participants knew about aflatoxin contamination in foods/snacks such as kilishi. All participants (100%) consumed street food, especially roasted fish, soya and kilishi, , which were the most popular choices (25.93%). Most participants (96.30%) believed street food hygiene was poor, and 81.48% reported health issues from consuming street food (Table 2).

Table 2: Knowledge and awareness of food/snack contamination by aflatoxins

Aflatoxin B1 concentration in the studied kilishi samples: Table 3 presents aflatoxins B1 (AFB1 ) levels in the studied kilishi samples. Fourteen out of twenty-six (53.85%) kilishi samples bought from the market had detectable amounts of AFB1 with a mean level of 9.81 (range: <LOD-27.28) µg/kg. The Kilishi samples (some of the samples bought from the market) treated with lemon juice one of the seven (14.29%) samples had a detectable amount of aflatoxin B1 (mean: 1.13, range: <LOD-30.52 µg/ kg) when half of the LOD was applied to each sample with <LOD, the means (range) of the untreated and lemon juice treated kilishi samples were 8.9 (0.285-27.28) µg/kg and 0.414 (0.285-1.19) µg/kg, respectively.

Table 3: Kilishi bought from the market and analysed for aflatoxins B1 with/without lemon juice treatment

Dietary exposure to aflatoxins from consuming contaminated foods is a major public health issue in sub Saharan Africa, including Cameroon. An estimated 4.5 billion people in developing countries may be chronically exposed to aflatoxin through diet [22]. In Cameroon, aflatoxins have been detected in almost all the studied foods and at occasionally high levels [23,24]. Another recent study has revealed the presence of mycotoxigenic fungi species, including Aspergillus spp, in meat samples sold in Buea, Cameroon [25]. This potentially speculates the contamination of meat with mycotoxins such as aflatoxins. However, no studies have assessed the levels of Aflatoxin B1 contamination in Kilishi and the effectiveness of lemon juice treatment in detoxifying aflatoxin B1 in Kilishi (Dried Beef Jerky) in Yaoundé, Cameroon. This is typical of food safety in the informal food sector in Cameroon, like elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.

Food safety in the informal sector is significant in many developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where street food vending and small-scale food production are common [2]. In Cameroon, hawking traditional foods such as kilishi (a popular dried meat snack) may represents both an economic opportunity and a significant public health concern. Kilishi is typically prepared by marinating thinly sliced beef in spices, drying it in the sun, and then selling it in local markets or streets. While consumers belove this product, its preparation and distribution often occur without strict adherence to hygiene or food safety regulations. In both Cameroon, one of the major risks associated with street-vended kilishi is the potential contamination with aflatoxins naturally occurring mycotoxins produced by certain species of Aspergillus, particularly A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxins are highly toxic and carcinogenic compounds that can pose serious health threats, including liver damage, immunosuppression, and increased risk of liver cancer. While aflatoxin contamination is typically associated with cereals, nuts, and oilseeds, it can also affect meat products through contaminated spices, improper drying conditions, or cross-contamination during handling and storage. The tropical climate of Cameroon with its high humidity and temperature further exacerbates the risk of aflatoxin development during the drying and storage phases of kilishi production. The issue is compounded by the fact that most kilishi hawkers operate in the informal sector, where there is limited access to food safety training, proper storage facilities, refrigeration, or hygienic processing environments. Vendors often rely on traditional knowledge passed down through generations rather than evidence-based best practices. Awareness about chemical contaminants like aflatoxins is often low or completely absent in such settings. As a result, both vendors and consumers may be unaware of the invisible but potentially dangerous health risks associated with their favourite snack.

Despite these concerns, the informal food sector persists and continues to thrive due to its affordability, convenience, and cultural relevance. For many urban residents, particularly those in low-income households, street food is not merely a choice but a necessity. Formal alternatives, such as processed meats sold in supermarkets, may be financially inaccessible to a significant portion of the population. Hence, interventions aimed at improving food safety in this sector must be practical, culturally sensitive, and economically feasible. Rather than attempting to eliminate informal food vending, policymakers and public health officials should focus on enhancing the safety and quality of food products sold in these settings. One effective starting point is the systematic assessment of contamination levels in commonly consumed street foods such as kilishi. By identifying the extent of aflatoxin contamination, public health authorities can begin to evaluate the severity of the risk and tailor appropriate mitigation strategies. In this regard, the present study provides a timely and relevant contribution. Our findings reveal that a substantial proportion of kilishi sold on the streets of Yaoundé contains detectable levels of aflatoxins, indicating a pressing need for intervention. Importantly, our results also offer a practical and accessible solution: the application of lemon juice, which is frequently sold alongside kilishi but is rarely used by consumers. Lemon juice, rich in citric acid and other organic compounds, has been shown in various studies to possess antimicrobial and detoxifying properties. In our study, the sprinkling of lemon juice on kilishi just before consumption led to a significant reduction in aflatoxin levels. This finding has both scientific and public health implications. From a scientific standpoint, it suggests a promising, low-cost method for reducing aflatoxin exposure among consumers. From a public health perspective, promoting the routine use of lemon juice as a condiment could be a feasible intervention to enhance the safety of kilishi without altering its cultural or sensory appeal. Nonetheless, further studies are needed to understand the mechanism of aflatoxin reduction by lemon juice, including the exact chemical interactions involved and the optimal quantities required for effective detoxification. It would also be valuable to explore whether other acidic condiments common in Cameroonian cuisine, such as vinegar or tamarind-based sauces, have similar effects. Moreover, awareness campaigns targeting both vendors and consumers could be instrumental in encouraging safer practices. These might include the dissemination of educational materials in local languages, training sessions for hawkers on hygienic handling, and community outreach programs promoting the health benefits of lemon juice application.

In this present study, over three-quarters of respondents were students/researchers, indicating that most had tertiary education, which is common in Yaoundé, Cameroon. This suggests that awareness of aflatoxins is higher among those with higher education, as students and researchers can understand the risks associated with AF contamination in street foods like kilishi. Similar studies have shown that education improves knowledge and awareness, influencing positive health behaviours at both individual and community levels [26]. This current study reveals that despite high awareness (74.05%) of aflatoxin contamination among consumers in Yaoundé, street foods like kilishi, roasted fish, and soya remain popular [27]. While 96.30% of participants viewed street food hygiene as poor, and 81.48% reported health issues from consumption, these foods continue to be widely consumed due to cultural significance, affordability, and convenience. This awareness-behaviour gap, common in urban settings, highlights how knowledge of health risks often fails to translate into action when cultural, social, and economic factors are at play [28]. Street food serves as an affordable and accessible food option, especially for young, single, or lower-income individuals who may lack the resources to avoid high-risk foods altogether. This finding has shown that certain socio-economic factors affect the contamination of food with aflatoxin [20,29]. The perception of poor hygiene is based on visible issues like inadequate storage and unregulated handling practices, which previous studies also document as prevalent in African urban markets [30]. Health problems from street food, including gastrointestinal and chronic illnesses, emphasize the public health impact of such food practices [31]. Nevertheless, the lack of accessible, safer alternatives leaves consumers with limited options. Our findings provides valuable insights into the dynamics of aflatoxin awareness, perception, and street food consumption in Yaoundé, Cameroon, particularly in relation to kilishi, a widely consumed traditional meat product. One of the key findings is that a significant majority of respondents were students or researchers, reflecting a population with a relatively high level of education. This demographic distribution suggests that awareness of aflatoxins and their associated health risks is relatively high in this setting. Indeed, 74.05% of participants reported awareness of aflatoxin contamination, reinforcing the idea that higher education correlates with increased knowledge of food safety issues, as supported by existing literature. Despite this high level of awareness, the study revealed a persistent and widespread consumption of street foods known to pose contamination risks, such as kilishi, roasted fish, and soya. This apparent contradiction underscores the presence of a pronounced awareness-behaviour gap. While individuals may be cognizant of the health dangers posed by aflatoxins and poor hygiene practices, socio-economic and cultural factors often override such concerns. For example, 96.30% of respondents perceived the hygiene of street food as poor, and 81.48% reported having experienced health issues, including gastrointestinal discomfort and symptoms of chronic illness, following the consumption of such foods. Yet, these foods continue to be favoured due to their cultural relevance, low cost, and convenience, especially among young, single, or economically disadvantaged individuals.

This finding also highlights that the perception of poor hygiene is not based solely on theoretical knowledge but is rooted in the visible realities of the informal food sector. Participants identified common issues such as inadequate storage, lack of refrigeration, and unregulated handling practices, all well-documented contributors to food contamination in African urban markets. These conditions not only facilitate microbial growth and spoilage but also increase the likelihood of aflatoxin presence due to exposure to moisture and heat. Importantly, the findings demonstrate that food safety in informal settings is influenced by knowledge and awareness and systemic limitations, including lack of viable alternatives. While consumers may recognize the dangers of contaminated foods, the absence of accessible, affordable, and safer food options leaves them with limited choices. This reinforces the idea that improving food safety in urban contexts requires more than just raising awareness it necessitates structural interventions that provide feasible alternatives and empower consumers to make safer choices. Finally, the finding underscores the relevance of socio-economic determinants in shaping food safety outcomes. Education, income level, and food accessibility play pivotal roles in risk exposure and food consumption decision-making. As such, any public health intervention aiming to reduce aflatoxin exposure must consider these broader contextual factors.

The observed aflatoxins B1 levels in the studied kilishi samples were not strange when considering existing Aspergillus spp report from Cameroon [22], and some well-known factors such as feeding animals with contaminated feed or poor processing practices, or as a result of prolonged storage and transportation of the kilishi e.g. from the North region into Yaounde, Centre region of Cameroon [20,21,32,33]. From a food safety perspective, measures to control aflatoxin levels in food and animal feed could be classified into preventive (i.e. preventing fungi contamination and growth, achievable through Hazard Analysis, Critical Control Point and Good Manufacturing Practice [34]; and detoxification (i.e. reduction or removal of aflatoxins if contamination occurs [8]. These may further be categorised into physical, chemical, or biological measures [35].

Additionally, in this present study, the efficacy of lemon juice (by simply sprinkling the juice on the kilishi before intake) in the reduction of aflatoxin B1 in kilishi samples was significant reducing aflatoxin B1 mean level by 93.4% (from 8.913 to 0.414 µg/Kg). Untreated kilishi samples were more contaminated (53.85%) and had a higher aflatoxin B1 levels than kilishi samples after lemon juice treatment. High contamination of market kilishi could be attributed to several factors, such as storage, preparation, pH, temperature, animal feed and the environment [36]. Treatment of kilishi with lemon juice for one hour effectively reduced aflatoxin B1 levels from the initial amount without altering its desired appearance. Similarly, Rastegar et al. [37], reported that roasting with 30 mL water, 15 mL lemon juice and 2.25 g of citric acid at 120? for one hour reduced the level of aflatoxin B1 by 49.2 ± 3.5% of the initial level without a noticeable change in the desired appearance of pistachios. It could be concluded in this current study that the treatment of kilishi with lemon juice and proper hygiene conditions of Kilishi preparation could be a valuable and safe approach to detoxifying aflatoxins in kilishi.

In conclusion, this study highlights the significant public health risks posed by aflatoxin contamination in kilishi, particularly in the informal food sector in Cameroon. Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus species, are toxic and carcinogenic, posing serious health threats such as liver damage and an increased risk of cancer. The presence of aflatoxin B1 in kilishi, a widely consumed dried meat snack in Yaoundé, underscores the need for urgent interventions to reduce exposure to these harmful toxins. Despite a high level of awareness about aflatoxin contamination, especially among educated individuals, the continued consumption of contaminated street food, particularly kilishi, persists due to its affordability, convenience, and cultural significance. This reflects the complex awareness-behaviour gap where socio-economic factors and cultural preferences often override knowledge of the health risks associated with aflatoxin exposure. A promising intervention identified in this study is the use of lemon juice, which when sprinkled on kilishi prior to consumption, was found to reduce aflatoxin B1 levels in the kilishi by 93.4%. This simple and low-cost method offers a practical solution for detoxifying contaminated kilishi without disrupting traditional practices. However, further research is needed to understand the exact mechanisms behind this detoxification process and explore other potential methods. Furthermore, a comprehensive approach is necessary to tackle aflatoxin contamination effectively, including improving food safety practices in the informal food sector, such as better hygiene, storage, and handling, along with public education campaigns. Additionally, policymakers should support informal food vendors by providing resources and training to ensure safer food practices. Therefore, this study emphasizes the need for practical, culturally sensitive interventions that reduce aflatoxin exposure while considering socio-economic realities. Public health can be improved by enhancing food safety in the informal sector without compromising the affordability and cultural importance of street foods like kilishi.

Authors wish to acknowledged the financial supports from W.A.A. (as part of his Prime from MINSUP) and A.K.M.C. that was used to carry out this study

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